8%  JL  p.  PtU  ^ikarg 


JCortlf  Carolina  ^iaie  College 


STATE   UNIVERSITY     D.H.  HILL   LIBRARY 


III 


mill 

S00022196  K 


Date  Due 


/     w 


■■  " 

f    r'v     l'ji-^ 

||P#M 

Abo  1  9 

w 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING 


A  Manual  on  the  Growing  of  Vegetables  for  Home 
Use  and  Marketing. 


Prepared  for  the  Classes  of  the  School  of  Agriculture  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota, 

BY 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN, 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  University  of  Minnesota, 

Author  of 
"Amateur  Fruit  Growing"  and  "Forestry  in  Minnesota." 


WITH  123  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SIXTH  EDITION. 

REVISED. 


ST.   PAUL: 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 

1904. 


COPYRIGHT,  1901, 

BY 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


PREFACE. 


This  book  was  prepared  primarily  for  the  School  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  where  it  has  been  used 
as  a  text  book  for  four  years.  In  this  edition  some  changes 
have  been  made  to  bring  it  up  to  date  in  the  matter  of  methods 
of  culture  and  varieties  recommended.  The  material  has  also 
been  re-arranged  and  more  attention  paid  to  the  classification 
of  vegetables  than  in  the  first  edition.  A  few  other  new  minor 
features  have  also  been  introduced  which  experience  seemed  to 
show  desirable. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  the  kind  assistance  received  in  the 
preparation  of  this  manuscript  from  Prof.  Harry  Snyder  and 
my  assistant,  R.  S.  Mackintosh.  In  previous  editions  I  have 
taken  pleasure,  as  I  do  now,  in  acknowledging  the  assistance 
which  I  have  received  in  many  ways  from  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  and 
Major  A.  G.  Wilcox,  and  it  pains  me  now  to  have  to  record  the 
death  of  both  within  the  past  year,  but  the  memory  of  the  many 
pleasant  associations  with  them  will  always  be  fresh  in  my  mind. 

Figures  numbered  52,  67,  69  and  121  are  from  D.  Landreth  & 
Sons;  26,  27,  31,  32  and  92  are  from  W.  Atlee  Burpee;  Nos.  22, 
23,  81  and  96  are  reproduced  from  publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture;  No.  5  is  from  Bateman  Manufacturing  Co.; 
Nos.  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  39,  41,  42  and  43  were  loaned  by  Dr. 
Lugger;  Nos.  58,  61,  63,  65,  66,  106,  108,  112,  119,  120  and  122 
from  various  sources.    All  other  figures  are  original. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

St.   Anthony   Park,    Minn.,   February   1,   1903. 


.      ..-,, 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Vegetable  Garden. — Location  and  soil  for  early  crops. 
Location  and  soil  for  late  crops. 

Irrigation. — Cultivation  and  irrigation.  Humus  an  aid  to  irri- 
gation. Amount  of  water  required  for  irrigating  different  crops. 
Pumping  water  for  irrigation.  Making  reservoirs.  Application  of 
water.    Rules  for  applying  water.     Sub-irrigation. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — Reasons  for. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Manures. — Most  valuable  elements  in  manures.  Direct  and 
indirect  manures.  Composition  of  vegetables.  Manures  and  fer- 
tilizers. 

Animal  Manures. — Horse  manure.  Hen  manure.  Cow  and 
swine  manure.  Sheep  manure.  The  manure  pile.  The  compost 
heap.  Commercial  manures.  Tankage.  Ground  blood.  Ground 
bone.  Nitrate  of  soda.  Sulphate  of  ammonia.  Superphosphate. 
Wood  ashes.  Kainite.  Lime.  Land  plaster.  Effect  of  manures 
on  crops.  Manures  for  early  and  late  crops.  Manures  for  legu- 
minous crops.     Manuring  the  growing  crops.     Liquid   manure. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Garden  Tillage. — Prevention  and  killing  of  weeds.  Im- 
portance of  not  allowing  weeds  to  go  to  seed.  Weed  seeds  in 
manure  for  the  garden.  Plowing.  Subsoil  plowing.  Ridging 
land.  General  cultivation  of  garden  crops.  Cultivation  to  de- 
velop plant  food. 

Garden  Implements. — Horse  hoes  and  horse  cultivators. 
Hand  cultivators.  Seed  drills.  Combination  seed  drills  and  cul- 
tivators. Markers.  Scuffle  attachment  to  hand  garden  cultiva- 
tors.   Scuffle  hoe.    Plant  drag.    Potato  diggers.    Spray  pumps. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Seed  Sowing. — Depth  to  plant.  Time  for  sowing.  Sowing 
In  stiff  clay  soils.  Sowing  seed  with  machine.  Sowing  seed  by- 
hand.  Using  the  feet  for  firming  the  soil  around  seeds.  Thin- 
ning. Protecting  seeds  against  insects  and  birds.  Transplant- 
ing. Avoid  transplanting  as  much  as  possible.  Conditions  of  suc- 
cess. Shortening  the  tops  of  plants.  Firming  the  soil  about  the 
roots  of  plants.  Tomato  cans  for  flower  pots.  The  Farmer's 
Kitchen  Garden. — Arrangement  of. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Seeds  and  Seed  Growing. — Good  pedigrees  in  seeds.  Test- 
ing seeds.  Simple  germinating  apparatus.  Curing  and  storing 
seeds.  Changing  seed.  Stock  seed.  Seedsmen's  specialties. 
Seedsmen's  humbugs.  Novelties.  Development  of  varieties. — 
Rules  for  improving  plants.  Cross  and  self-pollination  of  plants. 
Mixing  of  varieties.  Distance  between  varieties  to  prevent  mix- 
ing. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Glass  Structures. — Cold  frames.  Hotbeds.  Hotbed  manure. 
Fire  hotbeds.    A  greenhouse  hotbed. 

Greenhouses. — Cheap  kinds  of.  Methods  of  heating.  Sash 
for  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  Shutters.  Mats.  Ventilation  and 
temperature.  Watering.  Soil.  Boxes.  Substitutes  for  glass. 
Shading  the  glass.  Fifteen  things  to  remember  in  connection 
with  building  glass  strucures. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables. — Insecticides  and  methods 
of  destroying  insects.  Pyrethrum.  Paris  green.  London  purple. 
Tobacco.  Kerosene  emulsion  with  soap  and  with  milk.  Carbon 
bisulphide.  Catching  insects  by  light  at  night.  Application  of 
insecticides. 

Common  Garden  Insects  and  Methods  of  Destroying  Them. — 
Colorado  Potato  Beetle.  Imported  and  Native  Cabbage  Worms. 
Cabbage  Plusia.  Wire  Worms  or  Drill  Worms.  Cutworms. 
Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.  White  Grub  or  May  Beetle.  Maggots. 
Cabbage  Flea  Beetle.  Leaf  Lice  or  Aphis.  Cabbage  Lice  or 
Aphis.  Sweet  Corn  Moth  or  Tassel  Worm.  Parsley  Worm  or 
Celery  Caterpillar.  Chinch  Bugs.  Bean  and  Pea  Weevil. 
Squash  Vine  Borer.    Squash  Bug. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

Classification  of  Vegetables. — Warm  and  cold  climate  vege- 
tables. Frost  tender  and  frost  hardy  vegetables.  Botanical 
classification.  Characteristics  and  directions  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  vegetables.  Mushrooms.  Corn.  Asparagus.  Onions. 
Leeks.  Garlic.  Rhubarb.  Beets.  Swiss  Chard.  Spinach. 
Cabbage.  Cauliflower.  Radishes.  Rutabaga.  Turnip.  Brussels 
Sprouts.  Kale.  Kohlrabi.  Horseradish.  Cress.  Water  Cress. 
Beans.  Peas.  Okra.  Parsnip.  Parsley.  Carrot.  Celery.  Cel- 
ariac.  Sweet  Potato.  Tomato.  Potato.  Egg  Plant.  Peppers. 
Strawberry  Tomato.  Martynia.  Cucumber.  Squash.  Musk- 
melon.  Watermelon.  Pumpkin.  Gourds.  Lettuce.  Salsify. 
Endive.    Dandelion. 

Garden  Herbs. — Balm.  Catnip.  Lavender.  Peppermint. 
Sage.  Sweet  Basil.  Sweet  Marjoram.  Spearmint.  Summer 
Savory.  Thyme.  Winter  Savory.  Anise.  Caraway.  Coriander. 
Dill.     Borage.     Rue. 

Tables. — I.  Weight  of  one  quart  of  seeds  and  a  number  of 
seeds  in  one  ounce.  II.  Longevity  of  garden  seeds.  III.  Amount 
of  seed  required  to  sow  one  acre.  IV.  Average  time  required  for 
garden  seeds  to  germinate.  V.  Standards  of  Purity  and  Germina- 
tion of  Agricultural  Seeds. 

Monthly  Calendar  of  Garden  Operations. 


Vegetable  Gardening* 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

Location  and  Soil. — The  land  for  vegetable  gardening  should 
be  free  from  stones  and  stumps,  and  easily  cultivated.  Wet  land 
should  be  avoided  unless  it  can  be  drained  at  a  reasonable  out- 
lay; if  it  cannot  be  drained  it  is  of  little  worth  as  scarcely  any- 
thing of  value  can  be  raised  on  it.  All  land  for  vegetable  garden- 
ing should  be  well  drained  either  naturally  or  artificially,  since 
crops  on  well  drained  land  suffer  less  from  drought  as  well  as 
from  excess  of  water.  Drained  land  also  gives  best  and  most 
uniform  returns  from  the  manure  applied  to  it.  When  drainage 
is  lacking  in  the  land,  the  raising  of  plants  on  it  is  so  very 
much  a  matter  of  chance  that  in  the  long  run  it  will  generally 
prove  unprofitable.  Most  of  the  land  in  cultivation  is  sufficiently 
drained  naturally,  while  some  land  that  needs  no  drainage  when 
used  for  grass  or  grain  would  be  greatly  improved  by  being 
under-drained  when  it  is  to  be  used  for  some  garden  crops. 
Land  which  has  a  gently  rolling  or  undulating  surface  with  a 
southern  exposure  is  the  most  desirable  for  general  gardening 
operations,  since  it  receives  the  full  sunlight  and  allows  the  most 
perfect  control  of  the  water  that  falls  upon  it.  When  irrigation 
is  to  be  practiced,  such  sloping  surface  aids  very  much  in  the 
distribution  of  the  water.  For  a  few  crops,  such  as  celery,  cab- 
bage, etc.,  the  slope  makes  very  little  difference,  as  flat  and 
even  very  moist  (not  wet)  land  is  best.  There  is  a  very  great 
difference  in  the  value  of  northern  and  southern  slopes  for  vari- 
ous crops.  This  difference  will  frequently  amount  to  one  crop 
a  year  where  the  soil  is  closely  tilled  The  soil  on  a  southern 
slope  can  be  worked  much  earlier  in  the  spring  than  that  having 
a  northern  exposure,  and  often  by  proper  management  two  crops 
may  be  grown  in  one  year  in  such  places,  while  on  a  northern 


**tt£m 


8  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

slope  perhaps  only  one  crop  could  be  raised.  Then  again,  such 
crops  as  melons  and  tomatoes  that  require  a  long  season  and 
a  warm  location  to  mature  could  do  so  on  a  southern  slope, 
while  on  a  northern   slope  they  might  not  ripen. 

Location  and  Soil  for  Early  Crops. — When  the  object  in 
vegetable  gardening  is  to  grow  very  early  crops,  it  is  important 
to  have  quick-acting  land.  Such  a  soil  contains  a  large  amount 
of  sand  in  its  composition.  Soils  of  this  class  warm  up  very 
quickly,  and  decomposition  goes  on  very  rapidly  in  them.  They 
also  give  the  quickest  returns  from  manures.  If  such  land  has 
a  southern  slope,  and,  in  addition,  is  protected  from  the  north 
and  west  winds,  the  situation  will  be  an  ideal  one  for  the  early 
vegetable  garden  and  for  tropical  plants,  such  as  tomatoes, 
beans,  corn,  etc.  However,  land  and  locations  of  this  character 
suffer  most  from  drought,  therefore  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  protect  them  from  it.  Sandy  soils  are  especially  adapted 
to  irrigation,  and  sometimes  what  were  barren  sands  become 
very  fertile  when  irrigated. 

Location  and  Soil  for  Late  Crops. — When  the  intention  is 
to  raise  cabbages,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  etc.,  for  marketing 
in  the  autumn  and  for  crops  that  require  but  a  short  time  to 
mature  or  that  prefer  a  cool  location,  a  good  clayey  loam  is 
generally  the  best,  and  if  it  has  a  northern  exposure  so  much 
the  better.  If  obliged  to  use  a  stiff  clay  soil,  it  will  be  found 
to  give  best  results  if  subsoiled  and  drained.  Such  land  should 
be  fall-plowed  and  left  in  ridges.  It  will  also  be  improved  if 
coarse  manure  is  worked  into  it,  since  this  has  a  tendency  to 
make  the  land  open  and  more  easily  worked.  A  retentive 
clayey  loam  will  be  more  difficult  to  work  than  a  sandy  soil, 
but  will  generally  withstand  drought  much  better,  although  a 
somewhat  sandy  loam  with  a  retentive,  porous  clay  sub-soil 
is  often  considered  more  desirable  on  account  of  the  greater 
ease  with  which  it  is  worked,  and  it  resists  drought  nearly  as 
well  as  a  clayey  loam  if  proper  precautions  are  used  in  its 
management. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  is  generally  considered  unnecessary  in  this  sec- 
tion, since  we  raise  fair  and  even  abundant  crops  nearly  every 
year  without  its  aid,  but  in  almost  any  season  there  are  periods 


IRRIGATION   AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  9 

when  if  water  could  be  applied  to  growing  crops  it  would  im 
prove  them.  It  will  seldom  if  ever  pay  to  irrigate  ordinary 
farm  crops,  if  it  is  necessary  to  pump  the  water  used.  In 
order  to  have  irrigation  practical  for  farm  crops  the  water  should 
be  carried  and  distributed  on  the  land  by  the  force  of  grav- 
ity. It  may  pay  to  pump  water  to  irrigate  some  garden  crops 
if  the  conditions  are  favorable  and  the  work  is  done  intelli- 
gently. In  this  section  irrigation  should  be  used  to  supple- 
ment the  rainfall  which  should  ordinarily  be  kept  from  run- 
ning off  the  surface  of  the  land  by  every  possible  precaution. 

Mulching  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  practicable  only  around 
trees  and  in  the  case  of  a  very  few  garden  crops,  such  as 
strawberries  and  raspberries.  The  intelligent  use  of  mulch 
on  land  in  well  known  cases  has  caused  the  soil  under  it  to 
hold  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  thirty-three  per  cent  more 
than  was  retained  in  soil  near  by  not  mulched,  the  amount  in 
one  case  being  equal  to  an  increase  of  over  two  quarts  of  water 
to  every  cubic  foot  of  soil,  or  to  an  increase  of  over  680  barrels  in 
the  upper  one  foot  of  soil  of  one  acre.  If  this  amount  of  water 
had  been  applied  at  the  critical  stage  in  the  growth  of  some 
crops  suffering  for  moisture,  it  might  have  made  a  success  of 
what  would  otherwise  have  been  a  failure.  Where  practicable 
It  is  always  desirable  to  have  a  good  mulch  on  land  that  is 
watered,  since  it  retards  evaporation  and  pi-events  the  suriacw 
soil  from  baking. 

Cultivation  of  the  land  prevents  evaporation  and  so  saves 
the  moisture  in  it.  In  one  instance  the  amount  of  increase 
of  water  in  a  good  soil  due  to  cultivation  was  equal  to  thirty- 
three  per  cent  of  what  it  contained  when  not  cultivated.  This 
increase,  however,  is  somewhat  more  than  was  found  in  other 
trials,  but  in  every  instance  there  has  been  a  marked  increase 
in  the  drought  resisting  qualities  of  the  soil  due  to  continued 
cultivation.  In  some  experiments  made  by  Professor  Levi  Stock- 
bridge  in  1878,  it  was  clearly  shown  that  on  one  occasion  in 
eight  days  of  very  dry  summer  weather  thorough  cultivation 
of  the  land  resulted  in  saving  256  barrels  of  water  in  an  acre 
of  heavy  loam  by  preventing  evaporation  from  its  surface. 
These  facts  show  the  great  value  of  cultivation  as  an  aid  in 


10  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

irrigating    operations.      Cultivation    of    the    land    or    mulching 
should  always  go  with  irrigation. 

Humus  is  rotten  organic  matter.  In  the  soil  it  increases 
its  retentive  qualities.  On  this  account  new  land  which  con- 
tains much  organic  matter  does  not  suffer  as  seriously  from 
drought  as  that  which  has  been  cultivated  for  some  time  with- 
out manure.  Likewise,  land,  heavily  manured  with  rotten  ma- 
nure, which  is  largely  humus,  has  its  drought  resisting  quali- 
ties increased,  while  the  application  of  undecayed  manure  to 
the  land  has  a  directly  opposite  result  until  it  has  been  in  the 
soil  long  enough  to  become  thoroughly  rotted. 

Amount  of  Water  Required  for  Irrigating  Different  Crops. — 
Sometimes  a  very  small  amount  of  water  applied  at  the  right 
time  will  make  the  difference  between  a  good  crop  and  a  total 
failure,  as,  for  instance,  when  dry  weather  comes  on  just  as 
the  strawberry  crop  is  almost  ripe,  when  it  has  happened  that 
so  small  a  quantity  as  600  barrels  of  water  per  acre  has  been 
sufficient  to  ripen  the  crop.  In  western  Kansas  it  is  esti- 
mated that  a  storage  capacity  of  5,000  barrels  per  acre  in  ad- 
dition to  the  ordinary  rain  supply  is  needed  to  mature  a  crop 
in  dry  seasons.  In  this  section  a  storage  capacity  of  1,500 
barrels  per  acre  would  probably  be  enough  to  insure  against 
serious  injury  from  drought  in  any  but  very  exceptionally  dry 
years.  Enough  water  to  cover  an  acre  one  inch  deep  is  termed 
an  acre  inch.     About  900  barrels  equal  one  acre  inch. 

Pumping  Water  for  Irrigation. — Where  valuable  crops  are 
grown,  it  will  sometimes  pay  to  pump  water  for  them.  There 
are  many  localities  in  this  section  where  a  large  amount  of 
water  may  be  controlled  by  lifting  it  less  than  thirty  feet.  In 
such  places  windmills  may  be  successfully  used  for  pumping 
the  water,  providing  reservoirs  of  large  capacity  can  be  cheaply 
made  into  which  water  may  be  pumped  the  year  around  to  be 
used  as  needed.  Thresher  engines,  which  are  seldom  used 
except  in  the  late  summer  and  fall,  may  sometimes  be  used 
to  advantage  for  pumping  water  and  often  at  very  low  cost. 
Gasoline  engines  are  occasionally  used  in  some  irrigation  works. 
They  are  very  desirable,  but  at  present  the  price  is  too  high 
to  warrant  their  general  use.  In  putting  in  a  pumping  plant 
the  pump  should  be  put  as  near  the  water  supply  as  possible. 


IRRIGATION   AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  11 

Reservoirs  should  be  on  some  elevated  point.  They  are 
easily  made  by  digging  out  the  earth  and  puddling  the  bottom 
and  sides  with  thick  clay,  which  should  be  at  least  one  foot 
in  thickness  and  well  packed  when  wet.  A  good  way  to  pack 
it  is  to  drive  horses  over  it.  When  clay  cannot  be  obtained 
the  bottom  may  be  made  tight  with  a  thin  coating  of  coal  tar  and 
sand,  but  clay  is  preferable,  and  what  is  known  as  blue  clay  is 
generally  best.  Cement  is  liable  to  crack  badly  from  frost 
and  is  not  adapted  to  this  purpose.  Made  in  this  way,  reser- 
voirs are  very  cheap  and  easily  repaired.  It  is  important  to 
have  them  very  large  where  the  supply  of  water  is  limited; 
where  the  supply  is  large,  the  reservoir  may  be  much  smaller. 

Application  of  Water. — Sloping  land  is  necessary  for  most 
successful  irrigation,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  apply  water  to 
the  surface  of  level  land.  The  slope  should  be  sufficient  to 
permit  the  water  to  flow  quickly  along  its  surface  and  yet  not 
enough  to  cause  it  to  wash.  For  irrigation  purposes  the  rows 
should  not  be  over  SOO  feet  long.  The  best  results  are  gener- 
ally obtained  from  soils  having  considerable  sand  in  their  com- 
position. Drifting  sands  may  often  be  made  to  produce  good 
crops  by  irrigating  and  manuring,  and  lands  having  some  sand 
in  their  composition  are  much  better  adapted  to  irrigation  than 
clay  soils,  since  the  latter  often  bake  badly  or  become  sticky 
so  that  they  cannot  be  cultivated  immediately  after  applying 
water. 

Rules  for  Applying  Water  to  Land. — Water  should  not  be 
applied  unless  the  crop  is  suffering  for  it,  but  the  soil  should  be 
cultivated  thoroughly  and  frequently,  and  thus  waste  by  evapo- 
ration may  be  saved. 

Cultivate  at  once  after  irrigating,  if  the  land  will  permit 
of  it,  so  that  the  soil  will  not  bake;  evaporation  will  thus  be 
prevented,   and  water  will   be   saved  in  the   soil. 

Do  not  apply  more  than  enough  water  to  nicely  moisten 
the  land  and  avoid  getting  it  water-soaked. 

Do  not  think  that  irrigation  will  take  the  place  of  cultiva- 
tion, for  it  will  not,  since  without  cultivation  irrigation  is  sel- 
dom successful. 

Water  for  irrigating  purposes  should  be  somewhat  warm 
when  applied.     Cold  springs  do  not  afford  a  satisfactory  supply 


12  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

for  some  crops  unless  first  pumped  into  a  reservoir.  A  tern 
perature  of  60  degrees  is  desirable,  though  not  always  necessary 
for  the  best  results. 

Aim  to  wet  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  avoid  getting  water 
on  the  leaves. 

Wooden  troughs  afford  the  cheapest  conduits  for  water  and 


Figure  1. — One  method  of  irrigating  crop  planted  in  rows. 

should  be  used  whenever  practicable.     Iron   pipe  is  expensive 
and  much  more  difficult  to  manage  than  wooden  troughs. 

Sub-irrigation  is  a  new  term  that  refers  to  the  application 
of  water  to  the  roots  of  plants  by  means  of  underground  chan- 
nels, such  as  tile  or  other  drains.  It  works  best  in  sandy  soils. 
In  clayey  soil  the  water  runs  too  slowly  through  the  sides  of 
the  tiles.  Land  tiles  make  as  good  channels  as  any  for  this 
purpose.  They  should  be  buried  a  few  inches  below  or  by  the 
side  of  the  plants  to  be  watered,  being  laid  level  with  open 
joints.  Some  experiments  seem  to  show  that  it  is  a  very  waste- 
ful way  of  using  water,  while  others  have  shown  this  system 
to  be  economical.  As  practiced  for  watering  plants  in  green- 
house benches,  especially  for  lettuce,  it  has  given  excellent 
results. 


IRRIGATION    AND    ROTATION  OF   CROPS.  13 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

By  rotation  is  meant  the  special  succession  of  crops  grow- 
ing upon  the  land  for  a  series  of  years.  This  is  very  desirable 
even  on  land  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  hut  it  is  very 
difficult  to  lay  down  exact  rules  to  be  followed. 

Reasons  for  Rotating  Crops. — We  rotate  crops  for  at  least 
six  reasons.  (1)  To  avoid  insect  enemies,  as  in  the  case  of 
onions  and  turnips,  which  are  often  liable  to  serious  insect  in- 
juries when  grown  more  than  one  year  on  the  same  land.  Tur- 
nips are  especially  liable  to  injury  from  insects  when  grown 
in  the  same  place  successively.  (2)  To  avoid  injuries  from 
fungous  diseases,  i.  e.,  in  case  of  potato  and  beet  scab,  onion  and 
melon  rust,  corn  smut,  etc.  (3)  To  increase  the  amount  of 
humus  in  the  soil,  and  for  this  purpose  we  may  seed  down  the 
land  to  grass  or  clover.  (4)  To  deepen  the  soil  and  add  nitro- 
gen to  it  as  well  as  humus,  as  when  clover  is  grown  on  the  land. 
(5)  To  get  rid  of  weed  seeds  in  the  soil.  (6)  To  use  the  plant 
food  in  the  land  to  best  advantage,  since  crops  vary  very  much 
in  the  amount  of  the  different  elements  which  enter  into  their 
composition.  Leguminous  crops,  like  clover,  peas,  beans,  etc., 
improve  the  land  on  which  they  grow,  while  most  other  crops 
exhaust  the  soil.  Some  plants  excel  others  in  their  power  to 
search  for  plant  food,  or  to  take  plant  food  from  the  soil.  Some 
plants  feed  near  the  surface  largely,  while  others  take  their 
food  mostly  from  a  lower  level.  Root  crops  should  not  follow 
root  crops,  nor  should  vines  follow  vines  for  many  years  in  suc- 
cession on  the  same  land. 


CHAPTER    II. 
MANURES. 

Most  Valuable  Elements  in  Manures. — While  there  are 
twelve  or  more  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  our 
cultivated  plants,  yet  only  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash, 
and  in  a  few  cases  lime,  are  lacking  from  our  agricultural  soils. 
These  three  elements  enter  largely  into  all  our  cultivated  crops 
and  are  necessary  for  their  growth.  The  other  elements  are 
usually  present  in  abundance. 

Humus. — While  humus  in  itself  is  not  a  plant  food,  it  is  of 
great  importance  in  the  soil.  It  is  formed  by  the  decay  of 
organic  matter  and  is  composed  principally  of  carbon.  It 
promotes  chemical  action  by  which  plant  food  is  set  free  in 
the  soil,  and  it  increases  the  power  of  the  soil  for  holding  the 
water  and  gases  which  it  gives  up  slowly  to  the  roots  of 
plants.  Rotten  stable  manure  contains  a  large  amount  of  humus- 
forming  materials,  which  undoubtedly  add  very  much  to  its 
value,  and  it  is  probably  on  this  account  that  it  often  gives 
better  returns  than  commercial  fertilizers  containing  the  same 
quantities  of  what  are  termed  the  essential  elements. 

The  Action  of  Manures  in  the  Soil  can  be  and  generally 
is  both  direct  and  indirect.  They  act  directly  when  they  con- 
tain actual  available  plant  food  or  when  by  their  decay  they 
yield  it  to  the  plant;  they  act  indirectly  when  they  start  chem- 
ical action  in  the  soil  and  thus  set  free  soluble  plant  food  in 
the  soil  itself.  Almost  all  manures  act  in  this  indirect  way  to 
some  extent.  A  moderate  application  of  stable  manure  by  its 
decomposition  (which  is  chemical  action)  in  the  soil  has  been 
known  to  increase  the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  three  degrees. 
Lime  in  itself  is  a  plant  food  and  is  largely  used  by  some  crops. 
Most  soils,  however,  contain  it  in  great  abundance,  yet  if  quick 
lime  be  added  to  a  soil  already  rich  in  common  limestone  it 
generally  serves  to  increase  growth.  This  is  not  due  to  the 
plant  taking  up  more  lime,  but  rather  to  the  fact  that  the 
quick  lime   starts   chemical   action  in  the   soil  by   which   some 


MANURES. 


15 


of  the  locked-up  stores  of  plant  food  are  made  available.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  unleached  ashes,  though  it  contains  much 
more  valuable  fertilizing  material  than  lime.  Common  salt  also 
acts  to  some  extent  indirectly  as  a  fertilizer,  while  it  is  of  very 
little  value  as  a  plant  food. 

COMPOSITION  OF  VEGETABLES,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZ- 
ERS. 
In  the  following  tables  is  shown  the  amount  of  fertilizing 
elements  required  by  vegetables  and  the  amount  of  these  ma- 
terials which  is  contained  in  the  various  farm  manures  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  These  figures  are  from  eastern  United  States 
and  European  sources.  The  climatic  conditions  in  these  places 
are  quite  different  from  those  in  many  sections  of  the  Western 
states  where  the  actual  amount  of  ash  ingredients  in  plants, 
especially  in  dry  years,  may  greatly  exceed  the  amounts  here 
given.  The  relation  of  these  tables  to  one  another  is  worthy  of 
special  study,  since  they  show  what  the  plants  need  and  what 
the  fertilizing  materials  supply. 

TABLE  I.— Composition  of  Vegetables. t 


Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Potash 

Artichokes 

Per  ct. 
81.50 
93.96 
68.46 
87.23 
88,47 
90.52 
88.59 
90.82 
78.90 
78.33 
95.99 
92.93 
76.68 
91.08 
86.28 
88.46 
93.68 
92.61 
76.44 
90.53 
91.15 
84.19 
87.41 
87.55 
80.34 
12.48 
12.62 
79.93 

Per  ct. 
0.99 
0.67 

0.76 
1.04 
1.40 
1.02 
0.81 
1.09 
1.02 
0.46 
0.50 
1.87 
1.27 
1.71 
1.18 
1.61 
1.01 
1.49 
0.56 
0.68 
2.25 
0.74 
0.57 
1.03 
2.36 
3.11 
0.78 

Per  ct. 
0.36 
0.29 

Per  ct. 
0.17 
0.08 

Perct. 
0.48 
0.29 

0.24 
0.38 
0.16 
0.13 
1.92 

*0.09 
*0.11 
0.09 
0.16 
0.19 

*0.44 

*0.43 

0.51 

0.36 

0.64 

0.16 

'"6.36 
0.48 

0.12 

0.24 

0.07 
0.27 

1.16 

Kohl-rabi 

0.43 

6.23 ' 

♦o.'oY' 

*0.37 

0.14 
0.22 

0.04 
0.19 

0.10 

0.62 

3.58 

6.84 

1.01 

16 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Composition  of  Vegetables. i—  {Continued.) 


Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Potash 

Peas,    small     (Lathyrus    sativus), 

Per  ct. 

5.80 
93.39 
86.23 

76.86 
92.27 
74.35 
92.67 
91.67 
88.61 
92.42 
88.09 
82.00 

74.03 
94.88 
80.10 
86.19 
82.14 
80.86 
71.26 
41.55 
93.64 
73.31 
83.61 
90.46 
93.05 
91.87 
89.97 
48.37 

Per  ct. 

5.94 
0.67 
1.36 

1.51 
0.63 
2.28 
0.94 
1.72 
1.15 
1.94 
1.72 
1.21 

1.39 
0.41 
0.59 
0.56 
0.56 
1.25 
1.00 
5.79 
0.47 
11.72 
3.00 
0.80 
0.20 
0.33 
1.24 
1.34 

Per  ct. 
2.50 

Per  ct, 
0.59 

Per  ct. 
1  99 

Pumpkins,  flesh 

Pumpkins,      seeds      and      stringy 

Pumpkins,  whole  fruit 

*0.11 
0.55 

*0.16 
0.06 

*6.09 

0.53 

Rhubarb,  stems  and  leaves 

0.13 
0.19 
0.49 

0.02 
0.12 
0.16 

0.36 

0  49 

0.27 

.Squashes.       seeds     and      stringy 
matter 

Squashes,   whole  fruit 

Sweet  corn,   cobs 

0.21 
0.18 
0.46 
0.28 
*0.24 

0.05 
0.07 
0.07 
0.14 

*0.08 

0.22 

Sweet  corn,  husks 

0  22 

Sweet  corn,  kernels 

0  24 

0  41 

Sweet  potatoes,  tubers 

*0  37 

Sweet  potatoes,  vines 

Tomatoes,  fruitt 

0.16 
0.24 
0.32 
0.18 

0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.10 

0.27 

Tomatoes,  roots 

0.29 

0.50 

Turnips 

0.39 

W at ermelons,   juice 

W  at  erm elons,  rind 

Watermelons,  seeds 

'Wolff. 


tSugar  in  fruit.  3.05  per  cent;  acid  (malic),  0.46  per  cent. 
^Compiled  by  office  of  Experiment  Station. 


TABLE  II.— Composition  of  Farm  Manures. 


Cattle  excrement  (solid,  fresh). 

Cattle  urine  (fresh)  

Hen  manure  (fresh) 

Horse  excrement  (solid)  

Horse  urine  (fresh) 

Human  excrement  (solid) 

Human  urine 

Pigeon  manure  (dry)  

Poudrette  (night  soil) 


Mois- 
ture. 


Perct. 


a  60.00 


77.20 
95.90 
10.00 
50.00 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Perct. 

0.29 
0.58 
1.10 
0.44 
1.55 
1.00 
0.60 
3.20 
0.80 


Pot- 
ash. 


Per  ct. 

0.10 
0.49 
0.56 
0.35 
1.50 
0.25 
0.20 
1.00 
0.30 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Perct, 
0.17 


0.85 
0.17 


1.09 
0.17 
1.90 
1.40 


Lime. 


Per  ct. 


2.10 
0.80 


MANURES. 
Composition  of  Farm  Manures.— (Continued) 


17 


Mois- 
ture. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Pot- 
ash. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Solu- 
ble. 

Re- 
verted. 

Total. 

Lime. 

Sheep    excrement 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

0.55 

1.95 

0.50 

0.60 
0.43 

0.49 

Per  ct. 

0.15 
2.26 

0.60 

0.13 
0.83 

0.43 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

0.31 
0.01* 

0.30 

0.41 
0.07 

0.32 

Perct- 

Sheep  urine  (fresh) 
Stable     manure 
(mixed) 

73.27 

Swine     excrement 
(solid,    fresh) 

Swine  urine  (fresh) 

Barnyard     manure 

(average) 

68.87 

TABLE  III.— Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizing 

Material 

s. 

Apatite 

i 

36.08 

0.10 

0.40 
1.14 

1.51 

1.70 
3.80 
35.89 

28.28 

17.00 
23.25 

17.60 

20.10 

29.90 

26.77 

1.75 

8.85 

3.10 

3.10 
13.35 
1.91 
8.25 

Ashes    (anthraicte 
coal)  

0.10 

0.40 
1.20 

1.27 

5.25 
1.31 

Ashes    (bituminous 
coal) 

Ashes  (lime  kiln)... 
Ashes    (wood 

leached) 

Ashes    (wood,    un- 

leached) 

15.45 

30.22 

12.50 

40.09 

7.00 

4.60 

48.50 

28.08 

34.00 

Bat  guano 

8.20 

2.37 

1.24 

Bone  ash 

44.89 

Bone  black 

Bone     black    (dis- 
solved) ... 

15.40 
0.40 

1.30 
7.60 

Bonemeal 

7.50 

4.05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 

Bone     meal      (dis- 
solved)  

13 

53 

Bone    meal    (free 
from  fat).... 

Bone    meal    (from 
glue  factory) 

Carribean  guano!!. 

Castor  pomace 

Cotton-hull  ashes... 

7.31 
9.50 
7.80 

7.75 

39.95 

5.50 

1.10 

22.75 

1.80 
1.50 

1.25 

6.50 

9.60 

Cotton-seed     meal 
(decort) 

7.10 

4  30 

1.67 

10.52 

7.25 

Cotton-seed     meal 

24.27 
12.50 
12.75 

22.28 

10.17 
3.20 

Dried  blood 

Dried  fish.... 

a  55 

2.60 

Gas  lime 

43.66 

Horn    and    hoof 
waste 

13.25 

1.83 

Kainit , 

13.54 

1.15 

Krugite 

12.45 

18 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Composition  of  Commercial  Fertilizing  flaterials.— (Continued.) 


Mois- 
ture 

Nitro- 
•gen. 

Pot- 
ash. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Solu- 
ble. 

Re- 
verted. 

Total. 

Lime. 

Meal  scrap 

Per  ct. 

12.09 
13.32 
50.00 
60.00 
2.00 
7.60 
1.93 
1.40 

8.54 
61.50 
14.81 

2.25 

Per  ct. 

10.44 
0.76 
1.10 
0.40 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

2.07 

21.88 
0.10 
0.10 

Per  ct. 

Mono  Island  Guano. 

7.55 

37.49 

0.15 

0.35 

51.48 

Mud  (salt) 

0.90 

Muriate  of  potash.. 

34.27 

37.45 

Nitrate  of  potash... 

13.09 
15.70 

12.12 

0.85 
7.35 

45.19 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Oleomargarine    re- 
fuse  

0.88 
0.08 
15.30 

24.50 

Peat 

0.18 
2.65 

Peruvian  guano 

Phosphates      from 

3.20 

4.10 

28.50 

20.93 

Sewage   sludge 
(precipitated).. 
Soot 

88.49 
5.54 

3.61 
63.06 

1.00 

4.75 

2.54 
10.00 

6.18 
10.00 

0.05 

"  7.19*" 
20.50 

0.05 
1.83 

2.04 
3,25 

0.10 

1.58 

Spent     tanbark 

1.61 

33.46 

1.14 

Sulphate    ot     am- 

Sulphate  of  potash 

25.50 
33.40 

2.57 

Sulphate  of  potash 
(high  grade).... 

6.70 
3.71 
2.35 

0.30 

5.10 

11.80 
0.65 
0.70 

5.02 

8.20 

3.92 

*1.20 

2.22 

4.20 

15.80 

6.50 

0.35 

0.11 

*Sometimes  as  high  as  5  per  cent. 

fNova  Scotia  plaster  contains  94  per  cent  pure  gypsum  and  4  per 
cent  carbonate  of  lime;  Onondaga  and  Cayuga,  65-75  per  cent  gypsum 
and  18-28  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime. 

Animal  Manures. — Manure  from  the  same  animals  may- 
vary  greatly  in  quality  according  to  the  kind  of  food  and  the 
condition  and  age  of  the  animals  from  which  it  comes.  Fat 
animals  fed  on  food  rich  in  nitrogen  (grains)  produce  the  best 
manures.  Young  growing  animals  that  are  fed  on  poor  food, 
such  as  straw,  swale  hay,  etc.,  produce  very  inferior  manure. 
The  manure  from  young  growing  animals  or  from  milking  cows 
is  much  inferior  to  that  from  fat  steers,  since,  in  the  case  of 


MANURES.  19 

the  young  animals,  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid  is  required  to  build  up  the  animal  body.  In  the  case  of 
the  milking  cow  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  is  required  for 
the  production  of  the  casein  of  the  milk,  while  very  little  of 
the  nitrogen  in  the  food  is  retained  in  the  body  of  the  fatten- 
ing animal.  The  fats,  oils  and  starchy  materials  which  ani- 
mals use  largely  are  of  no  value  as  manures.  The  nitrogen, 
potash  and  phosphorus  are  thrown  off  by  the  fat  animal  in  the 
waste  products.  Manures  rich  in  nitrogen  ferment  most  rap- 
idly, other  things  being  equal.  The  urine  is  generally  rich  in 
nitrogen,  and  since  all  it  contains  is  soluble  it  is  of  more 
value  than  the  solid  excrements  of  animals,  and  special  effort 
should  be  made  to  save  it. 

The  Heating  of  Manures  and  other  organic  material  is  gen- 
erally due  to  the  presence  of  ferments  which  are  minute  organ- 
isms that  break  down  the  composition  of  the  materials  in 
which  they  grow  and  produce  chemical  changes  that  result  in 
the  formation  of  heat.  They  are  nearly  allied  to  the  yeast  that  is 
used  in  bread-making.  Fire  fanged  is  a  term  applied  to  ma- 
nure which  has  heated  to  a  very  high  temperature  without  suf- 
ficient moisture  and  has  dried  out.  It  is  generally  white  in 
color  and  has  lost  much  of  its  texture,  and  parts  of  it  may 
appear  to  have  been  burned  to  ashes.  When  in  this  condition 
manure  is  of  little  value,  for  it  has  lost  much  if  not  all  of  its 
nitrogen  and  all  the  ferments  which  it  contained  are  destroyed. 
And  it  is  probable  that  the  ferments  which  are  added  to  soils 
by  manure  are  often  of  much  importance  to  them. 

Horse  Manure  is  loose  and  light,  and  ferments  very  quickly. 
On  this  account  it  is  especially  valuable  for  early  spring  crops, 
as  it  makes  the  soil  loose,  thus  permitting  the  air  to  easily 
penetrate  it,  while  by  its  rapid  fermentation  it  warms  the  land. 
It  is  valuable  to  mix  with  cow  and  swine  manure  on  account 
of  its  hastening  fermentation.  On  account  of  its  heating  quali- 
ties it  is  used  to  warm  hotbeds. 

Hen  Manure  is  one  of  the  richest  manures  formed  by 
any  of  our  domestic  animals,  for  the  reason  that  poultry  live 
on  highly  concentrated  foods  and  the  liquid  and  solid  excre- 
ments are  voided  together.  It  heats  quite  readily  and  vio- 
lently and   should   be   used   very   sparingly   and   with   caution, 


20  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

since  if  put  in  contact  with  the  roots  or  stems  of  plants  it  is 
very  liable  to  burn  them.  It  should  be  handled  with  great  care 
and  be  kept  dry.  If  wet  it  ferments  and  parts  with  its  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  ammonia  gas,  which  is  readily  perceptible  to 
the  nose.  For  the  same  reason  it  should  not  be  mixed  with 
lime  or  wood  ashes  unless  used  at  once.  It  acts  very  quickly 
and  on  this  account  is  valuable  for  early  crops  or  to  apply 
during  the  growth  of  a  crop  when  the  available  manure  in  the 
land  appears  to  have  been  exhausted.  It  may  be  composted  with 
dry  peat  or  muck  when  it  is  more  safely  applied  than  if  clear 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  loss  from  heating.  Twenty  to 
thirty  bushels  of  hen  manure  is  generally  considered  sufficient 
for  one  acre  when  used  with  stable  manure. 

Cow  and  Swine  Manures  are  rather  slow  in  action,  conse- 
quently they  are  not  as  desirable  for  early  crops  as  horse 
manure,  while  they  are  excellent  for  late  crops.  For  this  latter 
purpose  they  are  often  better  than  horse  manure.  If  they  are 
mixed  with  horse  manure  they  ferment  very  rapidly. 

Sheep  Manure  is  a  very  concentrated  manure  which  heats 
rapidly.     It  is  one  of  the  best  farm  manures. 

Mixing  Manures. — It  may  often  be  a  good  plan  to  mix 
the  different  kinds  of  animal  manures  for  general  application, 
as  in  this  way  all  seem  to  be  improved.  Hen  manure  is  an  ex- 
ception and,  as  a  rule,  should  be  applied  separately.  Lime,  wood 
ashes  or  other  material  of  an  alkaline  nature  should  never  be 
mixed  with  stable  manure  of  any  kind  unless  a  considerable 
amount  of  loam,  peat  or  other  material  is  added  to  absorb  the 
ammonia,  which  is  always  liberated  when  nitrogenous  and  alka- 
line substances  are  thus  mixed.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mix 
ground  bone,  tankage  and  other  slow  acting  fertilizers  with 
heating  stable  manure,  as  by  so  doing  the  plant  food  they 
contain  is  made  more  available  and  the  stable  manure  is 
greatly  improved  in  quality. 

The  Manure  Pile. — If  early  garden  crops  are  to  be  grown, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  fine,  well  rotted  manure,  and  this  makes 
the  manure  pile  necessary-  It  should  be  placed  so  that  as  little 
waste  as  possible  will  occur  from  leaching  by  rains.  When  a 
manure  pile  is  to  remain  in  one  place  for  a  considerable  time 
it  should  be  made  upon  a  bed  of  leaves,  peat,  loam,  rotted  sods 


MANURE;  21 

or  other  absorbent,  about  one  foot  in  thickness,  which  will 
catch  and  retain  any  fertilizing  material  that  may  leach  through 
the  pile.  If  practicable,  the  pile  should  be  made  where  it  will 
be  protected  from  the  sun  and  drying  winds.  The  height  of 
the  pile  should  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind  of  manure  and 
the  season  of  the  year  when  it  is  made.  Manure  that  will  heat 
readily  should  be  piled  about  six  feet  deep.  When  the  pile  is 
quite  warm  the  manure  should  be  turned  over.  This  operation 
should  be  performed  very  thoroughly  as  often  as  the  pile  gets 
very  hot.  All  the  lumps  should  be  broken  up  and  the  whole 
pile  turned  to  the  bottom  of  the  bed  on  which  it  is  placed.  The 
absorbents  of  the  bed  should  be  mixed  evenly  throughout  the 
pile  and  the  cold  manure  from  the  outside  be  put  on  the  inside 
of  the  pile  so  that  it  may  heat  the  more  rapidly.  If  the  pile  ap- 
pears dry  on  the  inside  water  or,  what  is  better,  the  urine 
from  the  stable  should  be  added  to  assist  fermentation,  as  this 
cannot  take  place  satisfactorily  in  dry  manure,  and  the  lack  of 
water  may  result  in  serious  loss.  The  number  of  times  a  ma- 
nure pile  should  be  turned  over  will  depend  on  the  crop  to 
which  it  is  to  be  applied  and  the  kind  and  condition  of  the 
manure.  This  is  a  matter  which  must  be  left  to  the  good 
judgment  of  the  individual  manager,  but  some  of  the  factors 
bearing  on  this  will  be  found  discussed  farther  on. 

The  Compost  Heap  can  be  made  a  prolific  source  of  home 
made  manure.  Every  farm  and  garden  should  have  one  of 
sufficiently  large  proportion  to  take  care  of  all  refuse  organic 
material  about  the  place.  It  should  be  made  about  as  follows: 
Select  a  place  handy  to  get  at  but  where  there  is  no  standng 
water  and  put  down  first  a  bed  one  foot  deep  of  old  sods  or 
muck  and  on  this  pile  all  the  refuse  material  as  it  collects  in 
various  places.  It  may  consist  of  old  straw,  leaves,  an  occa- 
sional load  of  heating  manure,  rotten  vegetables,  etc.  This 
should  be  turned  over  occasionally,  by  hand  if  necessary,  but 
the  best  plan  is  to  have  the  compost  heap  in  a  hog  yard  and 
to  it  haul  manure  as  it  collects  near  the  stables.  If  manure 
is  piled  upon  a  good  bed  of  rotten  sod  it  will  not  lose  much 
by  leaching,  nor  will  it  lose  anything  by  heating  if  a  sufficient 
number  of  hogs  have  the  run  of  it  to  keep  it  well  worked  up. 
Commercial    Manures.— By    commercial   manures   is   meant 


22  VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 

those  manures  which  are  commonly  sold  by  the  trade.  When  of 
a  high  price  they  are  generally  of  a  guaranteed  composition 
and  they  should  be  bought  at  a  valuation  based  on  the  amount 
of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  which  they  contain  in 
condition  available  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  most  available 
the  form  in  which  these  materials  exist  in  the  fertilizer,  the 
more  valuable  it  is  generally  considered.  Most  of  the  older  states 
require  a  guaranteed  analysis  to  accompany  the  packages  in 
which  the  fertilizers  are  sold  and  exercise  some  supervision  over 
the  business.  Among  the  most  common  of  this  class  of  fertil- 
izers are  the  following: 

Tankage. — This  is  the  refuse  product  from  slaughtering 
establishments,  which  after  being  relieved  of  its  fat  is  brought 
to  dryness  and  ground.  It  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  but  contains  very  little  potash.  Most  of  the  nitro- 
gen and  phosphoric  acid  which  it  contains  is  available  to  the 
roots  of  plants.  It  is  probably  the  cheapest  source  of  nitrogen 
and  phosphoric  acid  to  be  found  in  the  western  states.  It  varies 
considerably  in  composition,  and  this  may  sometimes  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  in  some  establishments  the  blood 
is  separated  from  the  other  offal,  thus  reducing  the  percentage 
of  nitrogen  in  the  tankage.  It  is  rather  a  slow  acting  fertilizer. 
Tankage  may  be  safely  used  in  quantities  of  less  than  1,000 
pounds  per  acre  if  applied  broadcast  and  worked  into  the  soil. 
Four  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  generally  considered  a  good 
application.  It  may  be  safely  used  in  these  quantities  around 
growing  plants  of  cabbage,  corn,  lettuce,  etc.,  provided  it  is 
spread  out  evenly  and  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  roots 
of  the  plants. 

Ground  Blood  Is  very  rich  In  nitrogen  and  quite  difficult 
to  dry  thoroughly.  If  it  is  at  all  moist  it  is  likely  to  heat  badly. 
It  is  a  quick  acting  fertilizer,  and  is  seldom  used  without  being 
mixed  with  other  materials. 

Ground  Bones  are  always  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  but 
ground  fresh  bones  are  better  than  dry  bones  since  in  addition 
to  phosphoric  acid  they  have  quite  a  large  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen, which  amount  is  very  small  in  bones  that  are  old  and  dry. 
It  is  always  best  to  break  or  grind  the  bones  that  are  to  be 
used  on  the  land  and  in  many  cases  to  then  mix  them  with  fer- 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


23 


meriting  stable  manure.  Ground  bone  is  said  to  be  a  lasting 
fertilizer  because  its  effect  can  be  seen  for  several  years.  If 
bones  are  burned  the  nitrogen  is  wasted.  If  fresh  bones  are 
mixed  with  unleached  wood  ashes  they  will  be  made  soft  so  they 
can  be  easily  broken  up.  It  is  generally  applied  in  much  the 
same  way  and  for  the  same  purposes  as  tankage. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  called  also  Chili  saltpeter,  is  imported 
from  Chili.  It  looks  like  common  salt  and  contains  about  16 
per  cent  of  nitrogen  that  is  perfectly  soluble  and  in  form  most 
available  for  the  plant.  On  this  account  only  very  small  quan- 
tities should  be  applied  at  one  time,  because  if  not  taken  up 
by  the  plant  it  may  be  washed  deep  into  the  soil  out  of  reach 
of  the  roots.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  early  leaf  crops  such 
as  early  spinach,  cabbage  and  lettuce,  and  to  apply  when  a  crop 
comes  to  a  standstill.  It  acts  with  wonderful  quickness — almost 
like  magic.  It  may  be  applied  several  times  to  the  growing 
crop  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  using  from  75  to  100  pounds  per 
acre  at  each  application.  It  may  be  sown  near  the  hills  if  ap- 
plied to  cabbage,  but  for  spinach  or  similar  crops  it  should  be 


Figure 2.— Spinach  plants  grown  on  land  rich  in  rotten  stable  manure.  The 
larger  plant  received  in  addition  to  the  stable  manure  nitrate  of  soda  at  the 
rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre. 


24  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

sown  broadcast  when  the  plants  are  perfectly  dry  or  during  a 
hard  rain.  If  it  sticks  to  the  leaves  it  is  liable  to  burn  them. 
If  sown  during  a  hard  rain  it  is  quickly  dissolved  and  washed 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants  without  injury  to  the  leaves.  It  is 
expensive  and  should  never  be  used  when  a  cheaper  supply  of 
nitrogenous  manure  will  do  just  as  well.  It  may  occasionally  be 
used  to  good  advantage  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one-half  an 
ounce  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water.  Such  a  solution 
will   not   injure   the   foliage   and    is   of   sufficient    strength. 

The  use  of  very  large  quantities  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  the 
land  has  been  found  to  make  it  necessary  to  continue  using  it 
in  large  quantities,  while  if  used  at  the  rate  given  it  is  not 
followed  by  such  consequences.  The  supposed  reason  for  this 
is  that  so  much  nitric  acid  in  the  soil  destroys  the  nitric  acid- 
forming  ferments,  and  these  must  be  slowly  replenished  before 
the  soil  is  able  to  continue  yielding  its  ordinary  supply  of 
nitrogen. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  a  by-product  from  gas  works  and 
contains  about  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  It  does  not  act  as 
quickly  as  nitrate  of  soda,  but  for  late  crops,  to  be  applied  dur- 
ing warm  weather,  it  is  one  of  the  best  sources  of  nitrogen. 

Superphosphate  is  made  by  treating  ground  bone  or  nodu- 
lar phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid  to  render  the  phosphates 
soluble.  It  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  and  some  kinds  contain  a 
considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen.  They  vary  much  in  quality. 
The  better  kinds  are  generally  used  at  the  rate  of  about  400 
pounds  per  acre. 

Wood  Ashes  is  rich  in  potash  and  a  valuable  fertilizer  in 
many  cases  provided  it  has  not  been  leached;  if  it  has  been 
leached  it  is  practically  worthless  as  a  fertilizer.  Ashes  from 
hard  wood  is  much  more  valuable  than  that  from  soft  wood 
on  account  of  its  containing  much  more  potash.  Ashes  is  one 
of  the  best  fertilizers  for  fruit  trees  and  plants.  About  twenty 
bushels  of  unleached  hard  wood  ashes  is  generally  sufficient  for 
one  acre,  but  much  more  may  be  safely  used. 

Kainit. — Potash  is  also  applied  to  the  land  in  the  form  of 
German  Potash  salts,  a  grade  of  which,  known  as  kainit,  is 
very  commonly  used  as  a  fertilizer.  These  salts  are  more  or  less 
mixed  with  common  table  salt   and  other  impurities  and  form 

tTr  ubka*t 


Ega+c** 


MANURES.  25 

a  cheap  and  very  useful  supply  of  potash.  They  are  gener- 
ally sold  on  a  valuation  based  on  the  percentage  of  actual 
potash  they  contain.  Kainit  contains  13  per  cent  of  potash 
which  is  more  than  twice  as  much  as  there  is  in  ordinary  un- 
leached  wood  ashes.  From  200  to  600  pounds  of  kainit  is  gen- 
erally applied  per  acre. 

Lime  is  found  in  abundance  in  most  western  soils,  but 
burned  limestone,  whether  as  freshly  slacked  or  as  quick  lime, 
may  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  small  quantities  when  large 
amounts  of  stable  manure  have  been  used  upon  the  land  for  a 
number  of  years.  It  should  not  be  used  alone,  because  it  ex- 
hausts the  soil. 

Land  Plaster  is  a  sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  not  a  direct 
fertilizer,  and  its  method  of  action  is  not  exactly  known.  It 
may  occasionally  be  used  to  advantage  for  leguminous  crops, 
such  as  clover,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  in  applications  of  from  200  to 
600  pounds  per  acre  spread  broadcast. 

There  is  Little  Need  for  Commercial  Fertilizers  at  present 
in  most  of  the  western  states  and  they  should  never  be  used  until 
the  home  sources  of  manure  have  been  exhausted,  and  then  they 
should  be  used  to  supplement  rather  than  replace  farm  manures, 
and  as  aids  in  close  cultivation  of  gardens.  They  are  generally 
expensive,  and  results  from  their  use  here  have  not  been  as 
satisfactory  as  in  the  eastern  states.  Only  the  more  common 
kinds  to  be  met  with  here  have  been  mentioned. 

Those  who  mse  commercial  fertilizers  of  the  better  kinds 
for  the  first  time  are  very  likely  to  use  too  much  and  seriously 
injure  the  crops  to  which  they  are  applied.  It  is  much  better 
to  use  too  little  than  too  much,  and  to  experiment  along  this 
line  in  a  small  and  inexpensive  way  to  begin  with. 

Effect  of  Manure  on  Crops. — The  proportion  of  the  various 
plant  foods  used  by  different  crops  varies  considerably,  some 
using  a  larger  amount  of  one  element  and  some  of  another. 
Their  visible  effects  when  in  excess  are  also  quite  different. 
Garden  plants  that  are  grown  especially  for  their  foliage  use 
large  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  require  it  in  order  to  be  per- 
fectly healthy,  and  seed  producing  plants  use  large  quantities  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Where  nitrogen  in  a  soluble  form 
is  very  abundant  so  as  to  be  in  excess  in  the  soil  it  will  be 


26  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

found  that  the  plants  growing  on  it  are  noted  for  their  dark 
green  color  and  rank  leaf  and  stem  growth,  and  for  late  ma- 
turity of  fruit  and  seed.  In  the  case  of  small  grain,  it  may 
result  in  such  a  weak,  soft,  succulent  growth  that  the  stems 
cannot  support  themselves  and  they  become  "lodged,"  and  such 
growth  may  be  gained  without  an  increase  in  the  yield  of  grain. 
In  the  case  of  lawns  a  soft,  thick  sod  is  made;  in  the  case  of 
spinach,  cabbage  and  other  leaf  crops,  vigorous,  large  plants 
result;  while  tree  and  bush  fruits,  under  such  conditions,  make 
a  soft,  late-maturing  growth  that  easily  winter  kills. 

On  the  contrary,  when  soluble  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
are  in  excess  in  the  soil,  the  plants  will  have  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce a  large  amount  of  seed  and  fruit  in  proportion  to  straw  or 
wood  and  to  mature  early.  This  is  a  desirable  condition  for 
heaviest  grain  and  seed  crops.  In  the  case  of  bush  and  tree 
fruits,  it  conduces  to  fruitfulness,  early  maturity  of  wood  and 
hardiness.  These  qualities  will  be  most  evident  if  the  nitrogen 
is  under  a  normal  quantity  in  the  soil. 

It  must  not  be  understood  from  this  that  any  of  these  ele- 
ments are  hurtful,  for  they  are  absolutely  necessary  in  proper 
proportions  to  secure  best  results;  but  these  effects  follow  when 
they  are  greatly  in  excess. 

Except  in  few  instances,  fresh  manure  in  the  soil  is  not 
beneficial,  and  its  presence  prevents  close  cultivation  and  causes 
the  land  to  dry  out  very  quickly.  Such  manure  does  not  afford 
plant  food  for  some  time,  since  it  must  first  be  thoroughly  de- 
cayed before  it  is  of  any  value  to  plants.  Rotten  manure  has 
much  of  its  plant  food  in  an  available  condition. 

Manure  for  Early  and  Late  Crops. — Much  more  manure  and 
more  thoroughly  rotted  manure  is  required  for  early  than  for 
late  crops.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  early  in 
the  season  fermentation  goes  on  very  slowly,  and  unless  plant 
food  is  supplied  in  a  quickly  available  form  it  is  of  no  immedi- 
ate use  to  the  plant.  On  account  of  the  rapid  fermentation 
which  goes  on  in  the  soil  later  in  the  season,  crops  that  ma- 
ture later  than  the  middle  of  the  summer  may  be  able  to  use 
the  plant  food  that  was  locked  up  in  fresh  manure  in  the 
spring.  For  instance,  the  results  from  fresh  cow  manure  may 
be  almost  nothing  if  applied  in  the  spring  to  a  crop  of  early 


MANURES.  27 

cabbage  or  spinach,  while  for  a  late  crop  of  cabbage  or  for 
corn  it  may  answer  very  well.  Where  an  abundance  of  well- 
rotted  manure  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  spring  and  it  becomes 
accessary  to  use  partially  rotted  manure  for  an  early  crop,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  use  nitrate  of  soda  or  some  other  quick  acting 
fertilizer  to  afford  plant  food  until  the  manure  has  rotted. 

Manures  for  Leguminous  Crops. — Leguminous  crops,  such  as 
peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.,  do  not  need  as  much  nitro- 
genous manure  as  most  other  crops  that  are  so  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, since  their  presence  encourages  the  growth  of  nitric  acid 
ferments  in  the  soil.  Such  crops  improve  the  land  on  which 
they  grow  by  increasing  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  it,  and  in 
this  respect  they  are  different  from  all  other  garden  crops,  and 
are  sometimes  referred  to  as  nitrogen  producers  and  other 
crops  as  nitrogen  consumers. 

Animal  Manure  should  generally  be  spread  evenly  on  the 
land  and  then  be  thinly  covered  with  the  soil;  yet  for  some 
crops  it  may  sometimes  be  most  desirable  to  apply  the  manure 
in  the  hill  or  furrow.  The  amount  that  should  be  applied  per 
acre  varies  with  the  crop,  soil  and  manure,  so  no  exact  rule  can 
be  given.  For  a  midsummer  or  late  maturing  crop,  probably 
eight  cords  of  well  rotted  stable  manure  per  acre  would  be  suf- 
ficient in  almost  any  case,  and  much  less  will  sometimes  be 
enough,  while  for  an  early  crop  twice  as  much  rotted  manure 
might  be  used  to  advantage.  Well  rotted  manure  should  be 
covered  with  soil  soon  after  it  is  applied  to  the  land,  or  it  may 
waste  by  drying.  If  it  is  put  on  frozen  land  it  may  waste  by 
the  soluble  parts  being  washed  away.  But  in  the  case  of  fresh 
animal  manures  there  is   little   chance  of  loss   in  these  ways. 

The  effect  of  the  application  of  animal  manures  to  the  land 
will  remain  apparent  for  several  years.  It  is  generally  consid- 
ered safe  to  estimate  that  not  more  than  one-third  the  full  value 
of  these  manures  is  taken  up  by  the  crop  growing  on  the  land 
the  year  it  is  applied. 

Manure  the  Growing  Crop. — Sometimes  a  crop  comes  to  a 
standstill  on  account  of  having  exhausted  the  available  ferti- 
lizing material  in  the  soil.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  a  good 
plan  to  fertilize  the  growing  crop  with  hen  manure,  nitrate  of 
soda  or  other  quick  acting  fertilizer  and  cultivate  the  land  at 


28  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

once.  This  may  be  done  in  many  cases  by  applying  such  ma- 
terials to  the  crop  during  a  hard  rain  or  in  a  dry  time  by 
plowing  a  furrow  near  the  crop  and  placing  the  fertilizer  in  the 
furrow.  But  in  any  case  it  should  be  cultivated  into  the  soil  so 
as  to  become  well  mixed  through  it,  and  much  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  dry  fertilizer  from  coming  in  contact  with 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Rotating  Manures. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally 
change  the  manures  applied  to  land,  i.  e.  when  stable  manure  has 
been  largely  used  for  some  years  apply  some  commercial  ferti- 
lizer, lime  or  land  plaster,  and  when  commercial  fertilizers  have 
been  used  for  some  time  recourse  should  be  had  to  stable 
manure. 

Liquid  Manure. — Liquid  manure  is  sometimes  used  for  en- 
couraging the  growth  of  plants.  It  should  never  be  made  from 
fresh  manure,  but  from  that  which  is  thoroughly  rotted.  Urine 
may  be  used  as  a  liquid  manure  if  well  decomposed,  but  it 
should  always  be  used  with  great  caution  and  never  applied  to 
plants  if  fresh  or  undiluted.  Cow  and  horse  manure  are  gener- 
ally preferred  for  making  liquid  manure.  The  vessel  in  which 
it  is  to  be  made  should  be  one-third  full  of  manure  and  filled 
up  with  water.  The  whole  should  then  be  stirred  and  allowed 
to  settle.    The  clear  water  is  then  used  for  watering  plants. 

Liquid  fertilizer  is  also  made  by  dissolving  nitrate  of  soda 
In  water  as  mentioned  under  that  head.  Ammonia  is  sometimes 
used  in  very  small  quantities  in  water  applied  to  plants,  espe- 
cially to  house  plants,  with  good  result*. 


CHAPTER  III. 
GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

By  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  garden  we  accomplish 
three  things:  (1)  The  weeds  are  kept  out  so  that  they  do  not 
shade  or  take  away  valuable  plant  food  and  moisture  from  the 
plants  which  we  desire  to  perfect.  (2)  The  surface  soil  is 
brought  into  best  condition  to  resist  drought,  that  is,  into  the 
best  condition  to  avail  itself  to  the  utmost  of  the  stores  of 
water  in  the  subsoil  and  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  this  water 
from  the  surface  soil.  (3)  The  inert  plant  food  in  the  soil  is 
made  soluble  by  cnemical  action,  which  is  increased  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil. 

Prevention  and  Killing  of  Weeds. — The  methods  best 
adapted  for  keeping  weeds  out  of  the  garden  are  many  and 
varied.  They  depend  much  upon  the  condition  and  kind  of  soil 
in  which  the  weeds  grow,  and  upon  the  kind  of  crop  and  the 
habits  of  the  weeds  themselves.  The  most  important  step  in 
making  easy  the  prevention  of  weeds  in  the  garden  is  the  har- 
rowing or  other  thorough  cultivation  of  the  land  just  before  the 
planting  of  the  seed,  to  kill  the  young  weeds.  If  this  is  done 
thoroughly  the  weeds  do  not  have  any  better  chance  than  the 
crop.  If  this  is  not  done  the  weeds  will  be  ahead  of  the 
crop  in  growth,  and  if  started  ever  so  little  when  the  crop  is 
planted  the  result  generally  is  that  the  crop  is  seriously  over- 
grown by  them  before  it  is  large  enough  to  be  cultivated. 

When  garden  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  germinate 
are  sown,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  lightly  rake  over  the  land  with 
an  ordinary  fine-toothed  rake  even  before  the  crop  appears  above 
the  ground,  providing  the  work  is  so  carefully  done  as  not  to  dis- 
turb the  seeds.  This  is  an  easy  matter  in  case  of  the  larger 
garden  seeds,  while  it  would  be  impossible  with  the  finer  seeds, 
as  they  are  invariably  planted  shallow.  When  the  seed  is 
sown  with  a  drill  the  line  of  the  row  may  be  plainly  seen  even 
before  the  plants  come  up,  thus  making  it  easy  to  commence  cul- 


30  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

tivating  in  advance  of  the  weeds.  In  case  of  such  crops  as  car- 
rots, onions,  beets  and  parsnips,  which  are  quite  delicate  when 
young,  cultivation  should  begin  with  some  hand  garden  culti- 
vator, even  if  it  is  intended  later  on  to  cultivate  it  with  a  horse 
implement  and  the  crop  is  planted  with  this  purpose  in  view. 
Such  close  and  careful  work  cannot  be  done  with  any  horse  im- 
plement now  in  use  as  with  the  best  hand  implements.  Careful 
early  cultivation  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  since  if  the  weeds 
are  removed  when  they  are  young  the  work  of  weeding  is  small. 
If  allowed  to  remain  until  well  rooted,  their  removal  is  often  a 
very  serious  matter,  and  frequently,  if  neglected  at  this  early 
stage,  the  weeds  become  so  firmly  established  as  to  make  it  a 
question  whether  to  remove  tkem  or  to  plow  under  the  whole 
crop;  and  often  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  adopt  the  latter 
alternative.  Aside  from  its  effect  in  the  prevention  of  weeds, 
early  cultivation  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  breaking  up  the 
crust  that  packs  firmly  around  the  tender  growing  stems  of 
plants  and  which  seriously  interferes  with  their  growth.  Like 
all  surface  cultivation  it  is  also  an  aid  in  the  conservation  of 
moisture  in  the  soil. 

Importance  of  Not  Allowing  Weeds  to  go  to  Seed. — A  com- 
mon source  of  weed  infection  is  often  found  in  the  few  weeds 
that  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed  toward  the  end  of  the  growing 
season  in  the  maturing  crop  or  after  the  crop  has  been  gath- 
ered. To  some  persons  it  often  seems  a  small  matter  to  allow  a 
few  plants  of  pig-weed,  purslane,  tumble  weed  and  weeds  of  other 
kinds  to  go  to  seed  in  the  garden,  but  absolute  cleanliness  should 
be  the  rule  in  this  particular,  and  it  is  by  far  the  most  economi- 
cal in  practice  in  the  long  run.  It  requires  but  little  labor  and 
saves  much  useless  expense  if  the  weeds  that  are  going  to  seed 
are  destroyed.  If  the  preventives  for  weeds  here  suggested  are 
closely  followed  hand  weeding  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum 
and  will  often  be  unnecessary  with  any  crop. 

Weed  Seeds  in  Manure  for  the  Garden. — While  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject  of  manures  for  the  garden  is  not  the 
special  object  of  this  chapter,  yet  some  reference  to  the  subject 
is  quite  necessary  in  considering  the  subject  of  weed  eradica- 
tion. The  people  of  this  section  have  not  yet  learned  the  great 
value  of  barnyard  manure  and  its  proper  preparation  for  best 


GARDEN    TILLAGE.  31 

results  in  the  soil.  This  is  a  subject  of  vast  importance  and 
one  that  in  the  future  will  receive  far  more  thought  than  at 
present.  The  manure  applied  to  the  garden  is  often  coarse  and 
contains  many  weed  seeds  and  is  a  fruitful  source  of  weed  in- 
fection. If  the  manure  intended  for  the  garden  contains  the 
seeds  of  weeds  it  should  be  piled  up  and  allowed  to  ferment  until 
the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  rotted,  which  process  will  kill  the 
weed  seeds  in  it.  It  is  seldom  advisable  to  use  fresh  manure 
in  the  garden,  and  it  should  only  be  applied  in  this  condition 
when  free  from  weeds  and  then  only  for  some  late  maturing 
crops,  in  which  case  there  will  be  time  for  it  to  rot  before  the 
crops  need  it. 

Plowing. — In  the  western  states,  where  the  summers  are 
often  very  dry,  vegetable  land  should  generally  be  plowed  in 
the  autumn  so  that  the  subsoil  may  become  sufficiently  com- 
pacted by  spring  to  readily  transmit  the  subsoil  moisture  to  the 
surface.  Such  treatment,  by  forming  a  dust  blanket,  retards 
evaporation  from  the  land  during  dry  autumns  and  dry  winters 
when  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground.  Fall  plowing  also  puts 
the  land  in  the  best  shape  for  the  action  of  the  elements  and 
the  development  of  plant  food,  and  may  oe  a  means  of  killing 
very  many  cut  worms,  white  grubs  and  other  insects  that  winter 
over  in  the  soil.  If  plowing  is  left  until  spring  in  this  climate 
it  should  be  done  as  early  as  practicable  and  not  so  deep  as 
when  done  in  the  fall.  Deep  spring  plowing  leaves  too  much  of 
the  upper  soil  loose  and  not  sufficiently  compact  to  enable  the 
subsoil  water  to  easily  reach  the  surface  roots — but  where  irri- 
gation is  practiced  there  is  not  much  difference  in  this  respect. 
The  soil  for  the  garden  should  ordinarily  be  plowed  to  a  depth 
of  about  eight  inches,  yet  in  the  case  of  some  light  soils  half 
this  depth  may  be  preferable. 

Subsoil  Plowing  or  Subsoiling,  are  terms  applied  to  the 
loosening  of  the  land  just  below  where  the  plow  ordinarily  goes. 
In  doing  this,  the  subsoil  is  not  brought  to  the  surface,  but 
a  special  plow  is  used  which  follows  an  ordinary  plow.  This 
has  no  mold  board,  but  has  a  good  point  and  shoe,  and  these 
loosen  the  subsoil  without  raising  it.  This  process  may  be 
hurtful  or  of  no  value  to  subsoils  already  so  loose  as  to  permit 
the  roots  of  plants  to  readily  push  into  them,   and  should  not 


32 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


be  applied  to  them,  but  for  some  of  the  very  stiff  subsoils  of 
this  section  it  is  a  great  improvement,  since  it  deepens  the  till- 
able land  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  can  push  more  readily 
into  it.  This  loosening  of  the  stiff  subsoil  also  puts  it  into  just 
the  right  condition  for  receiving  and  holding  water.  It  is  thus 
sometimes  a  great  help  in  carrying  plants  over  droughty  periods. 
Subsoiling  gives  best  results  when  performed  in  the  autumn. 
If  done  in  the  spring  and  the  operation  is  followed  by  dry 
weather,  the  land  is  apt  to  be  left  too  loose  to  hold  moisture 
well  that  year  and  consequently  will  suffer  from  drought.  It  is 
seldom,  even  on  stiff  land,  that  subsoiling  is  needed  more  than 


Figure  3. — Root  of  onion  plant  with  earth  washed  off.     The  roots  went 
to  the   depth   of   eighteen   inches   in .  the   earth. 

once  in  four  or  five  years,  for  after  being  once  loosened  the 
roots  of  plants  penetrate  it  and  keep  it  open.  The  roots  of  our 
garden  crops  push  deeper  into  the  land  than  is  generally  known; 
even  the  onion,  which  is,  perhaps,  as  shallow  rooted  as  any  gar- 
den crop  grown,  often  pushes  its  roots  to  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches  in  good  soil,  while  corn  roots  have  been  followed  to  a 


GARDEN    TILLAGE.  33 

depth  of  four  feet.  It  is  probable  that  in  good  land  almost  an^  of 
our  garden  crops  will  send  their  roots  eighteen  or  more  inches 
deep. 

Ridging  the  Land. — If  the  land  is  liable  to  be  too  wet  for 
planting  in  early  spring,  it  is  sometimes  a  good  practice  in  plow- 
ing it  to  turn  several  furrows  back  to  back  and  thus  leave  the 
land  in  ridges  over  winter.  If  these  ridges  or  "lands"  are  made 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  they  may  be  dragged  and  planted 
in  the  spring  without  further  plowing.  For  some  crops  it  is 
often  best  to  open  the  furrows  again  in  the  spring  and  thus  leave 
the  land  level.     This  method  of  treatment  permits  of  working 

Figure  4— Cross  section  of  ridged  land. 

the  land  much  earlier  in  the  spring  than  it  otherwise  could  be 
worked  if  plowed  flat.  It  also  leaves  the  soil  in  very  good  shape 
for  the  action  of  frost  on  its  particles  during  the  winter.  For 
early  crops  on  flat  or  heavy  soils  it  is  a  most  desirable  treat- 
ment. The  objection  to  it  is  that  if  not  turned  back  in  the 
spring  the  dead  furrows  interfere  with  cultivation ;  if  the  land  is 
thus  turned  back  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  left  too  loose. 
But  admitting  these  objections,  even  then  there  are  often  cases 
where  this  treatment  would  be  very  desirable.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  too,  in  cultivating  the  garden  that,  while  the 
soil  in  it  may  be  too  loose,  it  cannot  be  too  rich  nor  too  deep, 
nor  can  the  subsc'l,  if  not  of  too  impervious  a  nature,  be  too 
compact,  and  yet  it  must  be  loose  enough  to  permit  of  the 
roots  entering  it  and  the  water  percolating  through  it. 

General  Cultivation  of  Garden  Crops. — The  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  the  general  cultivation  of  garden  crops  vary  some- 
what according  to  the  soil,  season  and  crop.  However,  it  is 
very  important  to  remember  that  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  but 
a  small  part  of  the  work  of  cultivation.  The  most  important 
part  in  this  section  is  to  so  fit  the  soil  that  it  may  best  with- 


34  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

stand  drought.  This  is  accomplished  by  frequent  shallow  culti- 
vation during  the  period  of  drought.  The  first  implements  to  use 
in  the  care  of  such  crops  as  are  generally  cultivated  by  hand 
are  those  that  work  the  soil  to  only  a  very  slight  depth  close  to 
the  plants.  Such  implements  may  be  used  just  as  the  seedlings 
are  breaking  ground.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  gained  some 
little  strength,  implements  should  be  used  that  will  go  deeper, 
until  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  can  be  easily  worked  with- 
out endangering  the  safety  of  the  crop  by  covering  the  plants 
with  dirt.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  our  garden  crops  should  ever 
be  cultivated  more  than  three  inches  deep,  and  it  is  very  certain 
that  many  crops  are  injured  by  cultivating  deeply  very  close  to 
the  plants,  in  which  case  the  roots  are  cut  off  near  their  upper 
ends  and  thus  wholly  destroyed.  Cultivation  in  a  period  of 
drought  results  in  forming  a  mulch  or  blanket  of  dry  earth  on 
the  surface  of  the  land,  which  prevents  the  moisture  from  pass- 
ing into  the  atmosphere,  and  a  rather  shallow  dust  blanket,  say 
three  inches  deep,  accomplishes  this  purpose.  A  compact  sub- 
soil readily  transmits  the  water  upwards  to  the  surface  soil  in 


Figure  5.— Iron  Age  horse  hoe. 

the  same  manner  that  a  lamp  wick  carries  the  oil  to  the  flame. 
At  the  surface  the  soil  water  is  prevented  from  evaporating  by 
the  blanket  of  loose  earth,  and  is  thus  saved  in  the  upper  sub- 
soil and  lower  and  middle  parts  of  the  furrow  slice  for  the  roots 
of  the  crop.  Loose  surface  soil  is  a  good  non-conductor  of  water. 
During  the  growth  of  a  crop  the  surface  soil  should  never  be  left 
long  with  a  crust  on  it,  but  should  be  stirred  after  each  rain  or 
artificial  watering. 


GARDEN    TILLAGE. 


35 


Cultivation  to  Develop  Plant  Food. — Nearly  all  land  in  this 
section  contains  immense  quantities  of  plant  food.  Professor 
Snyder  has  shown  that  our  average  wheat-producing  soils  con- 
tain enough  nitrogen  to  raise  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  suc- 
cessive crops  of  wheat.  But  only  a  very  little  of  this  material 
is  ever  at  one  time  in  a  condition,  in  which  the  plant  can  take 
it  up;  nearly  all  of  it  is  insoluble.  By  chemical  action  and 
fermentation  in  the  soil,  plant  food  is  set  free.  This  is  increased 
and  made  more  complete  by  admitting  air  into  the  soil.  Hence 
the  reason  for  deep  plowing  in  the  fall,  which  allows  the  air 
and  water  to  enter  and  thus  develop  plant  food.  This,  also,  is 
an  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  cultivating  land.  Where 
the  soil  can  be  kept  moist  through  the  summer  deep  spring 
plowing  is  an  advantage  as  it  opens  the  soil  to  the  air;  but  on 
account  of  the  liability  to  injury  from  droughts  to  soils  thus 
worked  the  practice  is  generally  a  poor  one  for  this  section. 


1 


Figure  6.— Planet  Jr.  fine  tooth  cultivator. 
GARDEN  IMPLEMENTS. 
Implements,  such  as  plows,  harrows,  etc.,  used  for  prepar- 
ing the  land  for  ordinary  farm  crops   are   also  used  in  fitting 
the  land  for  garden  crops.     In  addition,  however,  there  are  a 


36 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


number  of  tools  and  implements  which  are  not  commonly  used 
in  growing  the  farm  crops.  These  may  be  roughly  classed  as 
follows: 

Horse  Hoes  and  Horse  Cultivators  are  much  alike  in  general 
construction,  but  each  is  adapted  to  special  purposes,  and  both 
are  very  desirable.  The  horse  hoes  are  for  use  when  the  land 
is  very  hard  and  weedy;  they  may  also  be  used  for  ridging 
the  land  and  drawing  the  earth  from  or  harrowing  it  towards 
the  plants.     For  this  purpose  they  have  various  attachments. 

The  cultivators  are  especially  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  the 
surface  soil  and  ping  a  dust  blanket;  they  do  not  remove 
weeds  that  are  well  established.  They  throw  very  little  soil  side- 
ways and  on  this  account  may  be  .used  for  cultivating  very 
close  to  small  plants.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  those 
known  under  the  names  of  Planet  Jr.  and  Iron  Age. 


U± 


Figure  7.— Opening-  and  closing  furrows  with  hand  garden  cultivators. 


Hand  Cultivators. — There  are  many  good  forms  of  hand  cul- 
tivators on  the  market,  and  they  are  a  necessity  in  every  garden 
containing  over  a  quarter  of  an  acre.  They  are  made  so  as  to 
be  adjusted  to  various  widths  between  the  rows,  and  kinds 
called  "straddle  cultivators"  are  made  so  as  to  cut  on  two  sides 
of  a  row  of  plants  at  one  time,  which  is  often  quite  an  advantage. 
They  also  have  various  attachments  for  special  purposes.    Among 


GARDEN    TILLAGE.  37 

the  best  of  these  are  Jewel  wheel  hoe,  New  Universal  wheel  hoe, 
Gem  garden  cultivator  and  the  several  kinds  manufactured  by 
the  Planet  Jr.  Co. 

Seed  Drills. — These  are  necessary  in  every  garden.  There 
are  many  good  kinds  offered  by  dealers.  Among  the  best  are 
the  New  Model  drill,  Planet  Jr.  Hill-Dropping  drill  and  Mat 
thews  drill. 

Combined  Seed  Drills  and  Cultivators. — These  are  very  eco 
nomical  and  useful  implements  for  a  small  garden;  for  a  large 
garden  it  is  important  to  have  the  seed  drill  and  cultivator  sep- 


'^■'^'iC^^^- 


Figure  8.— Garden  drills.  (1)  A.  H.  Mathews.  (2)  Planet  Jr.  combined  drill. 
(2)  Mathews  combined  drill.  (4)  New  Model  drill.  (5)  Planet  Jr.  Hill 
Dropping  drill. 

arate,  but  in  a  small  garden  these  combined  machines  can  be 
used  to  good  advantage,  and  thereby  make  a  saving  in  first  cost. 
Among  the  best  of  these  is  the  combination  drill  and  cultivator 
made  by  the  Ames  Plow  Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  the  Planet 
Jr.   combined    drill   and    cultivator. 


Figure  KJ.— A  simple  garden  marker. 


38  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

Marker. — The  illustration  shows  a  good  form  of  a  marker 
for  the  garden.  It  is  easily  made  by  any  one  who  is  handy  with 
tool*  and  is  used  for  marking  out  rows. 


Figure  10. — Common  wooden 
dibber. 


Figure  11. — Improved  flat 
steel  dibber. 


Dibbers  are  generally  made  from  a  crooked  stick  shod  with 
iron  and  are  very  useful  in  transplanting  (Fig.  10).  A  better 
form  made  of  steel  is  shown  in  figure  11. 

Scuffle  Attachments  for  Hand  Garden  Cultivators. — Fig.  11 
shows  two  sets  of  implements  designed  to  be  attached  to  the 


Figure  12.— Home  made  attach- 
ments for  garden  cultivators. 


Figure  13.— Scuffle  hoe. 


ordinary  wheel  cultivators  which  will  work  close  up  to  the 
young  plants  so  as  to  cut  off  the  weeds  just  under  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  will  be  found  very  useful  in  many  places.     They 


GARDEN  TILLAGE.  39 

should  be  made  out  of  tool  steel  and  any  good  blacksmith  can 
make  them.  The  length  of  blades  may  be  made  to  suit  the  work. 
The  Scuffle  Hoe,  shown  in  Fig.  13,  is  an  excellent  old-fash- 
ioned implement  for  shallow  cultivation,  such  as  is  needed  in 
early  spring  in  the  garden.  Besides,  it  is  very  cheap  and  simple 
and  can  be  made  by  any  handy  blacksmith.  It  cannot  be  recom- 
mended to  take  the  place  of  the  improved  wheel  hoes  for  large 
gardens,  but  in  small  gardens  it  may  be  used  for  the  work  of 
shallow  cultivation  to  good  advantage.  It  does  not  work  the 
soil  deep  enough  for  the  best  summer  cultivation. 


Figure  14.— Plank  drag  for  smoothing  the  surface  of  land. 

Plank  Drag  or  Smoothing  Board. — The  form  of  this  is  clear- 
ly shown  in  Fig.  14.  It  is  used  for  crushing  lumpy  soil  and 
smoothing  off  and  levelling  the  land  preparatory  to  seed  sowing 
or  planting  and  will  be  found  very  useful.  It  can  be  made  by 
any  one.  The  planks  are  two  by  ten  inches  on  the  ends  and 
eight  feet  long,  lapped  two  inches  and  nailed.  These  are 
strengthened  by  two  six-inch  cleats  securely  bolted  on.  It  is 
drawn  by  a  chain  fastened  at  the  front  corners. 

Potato  Diggers. — Of  the  cheaper  forms  of  potato  diggers, 
probably  the  HallocK  Improved  is  the  most  perfect.  It  does  very 
good  work,  and  where  not  over  five  acres  of  potatoes  are  to 
be  dug  it  is  probably  all  that  is  needed.  Where  the  potato  is 
raised  on  a  large  scale,  however,  it  is  generally  desirable  to 
use  an  elevating  digger.  Of  these  the  Hoover  and  the  Dowden 
are  probably  the  best  to  be  had.  They  both  work  on  the  same 
principle. 

Spray  Pumps. — Almost  every  farmer  and  gardener  needs  a 
good  spray  pump  for  applying  Paris  green  to  potatoes  and 
vines  and  for  spraying  trees,  vines,  etc.,  with  fungicides  or  in- 
secticides.    For  this  purpose  some  form  of  the  knapsack  spray 


40 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


pump  is  most  desirable  where  the  work  to  be  done  is  not  very 
extensive,  tor  applying  these  subtances  on  a  large  scale  some 
special  apparatus  is  needed,  and  there  are  many  kinds  offered 
by  manufacturers.  In  Fig.  15  is  shown  the  barrel  spray  pump, 
which  has  been  found  most  convenient  at  the  Minnesota  Experi- 
ment Station  for  general  work  about  the  grounds,  such  as 
spraying  trees  of  different  kinds  where  the  knapsack  sprayer  is 


Figure  15.— Barrel  spray  pump,  showing  cone  shaped  strainer  to  the  left. 

insufficient.  The  barrel  is  fastened  to  a  wooden  frame  and 
may  be  placed  m  a  wagon  or  on  a  stone  boat  when  it  is  to  be 
used. 

The  essential  parts  are  a  good  hardwood  barrel,  such  as  a 
linseed  oil  barrel  mounted  on  and  securely  fastened  to  a  light 
framework  of  oak.  At  one  end  of  the  barrel  is  mounted  a 
powerful  force  pump  with  attachments  capable  of  throwing  two 


GARDEN  TILLAGE.  41 

or  three  fine  strong  sprays  at  one  time.  The  liquid  in  the  barrel 
is  kept  agitated  by  a  small  stream  of  water  passing  through  a 
one-fourth  inch  pipe,  having  a  one-sixteenth  inch  wide  opening 
near  the  feed  p.pe  of  the  pump,  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel. 
On  one  end  of  the  barrel  is  shown  a  cone  shaped  strainer  which 
is  much  the  best  form  to  use.  There  are  many  styles  of  spray 
nozzles  on  the  market.  For  general  use  the  McGowen,  Vermorel 
or  Bordeaux  are  best. 

The  lower  end  of  the  feed  pipe  is  covered  with  a  fine 
brass  screen.  In  the  center  of  the  side  of  the  barrel  is  an  open- 
ing eight  inches  in  diameter  with  a  tight  fitting  cover.  This  is  so 
large  that  the  barrel  may  be  easily  cleaned.  The  whole  expense 
of  making  this  machine  was  as  follows:  One  linseed  oil  bar- 
rel, $1;  pump,  $6.50;  50  feet  of  one-half  inch  hose,  $3;  strainer, 
$1.50;  two  nozzles,  $1.25;  bolts,  etc.,  50  cents.  Total  cost,  not 
including  labor,  $13.75. 

In  buying  machinery  it  is  well  to  regard  with  suspicion 
those  that  are  very  complicated,  as  the  simplest  is  generally  the 
most  durable  in  the  end. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING  FARMER'S  KITCHEN 

GARDEN. 

For  the  Successful  Germination  of  Seed  in  the  land  it 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  have  a  reasonable  amount  of  heat, 
moisture  and  air.  To  secure  these  conditions  in  practice,  the 
seed  should  be  imbedded  in  mellow  soil,  and  this  packed  around 
it  just  firm  enough  to  bring  it  into  actual  contact  with  and 
make  sure  capillary  action  in  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  left  loose 
over  and  around  the  seed,  capillary  action  cannot  continue,  and 
the  seed  is  liable  to  dry  out  unless  the  season  is  very  wet;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  soil  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  com- 
pact over  the  seed,  or  the  young  seedling  will  not  be  able  to  push 
through  it.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  sowing  may  have  been 
done,  the  successful  germination  of  the  seed  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  condition  of  the  ground.  Unless  the  seed  is  carefully 
and  properly  placed  and  covered,  the  crop  cannot  get  a  good  start 
no  matter  how  well  the  land  has  been  prepared  or  how  good 
the  seed  is.  Seed  will  not  sprout  in  the  absence  of  air,  and  on 
this  account  when  deeply  buried  some  weed  seeds  may  retain 
their  germinating  power  for  many  years.  Cases  are  on  record  of 
yellow  mustard  seeds  germinating  after  remaining  in  the  land 
for  eighteen  years.  Very  frequently,  on  plowing  land  that  has 
not  been  stirred  for  a  long  time,  the  weeds  of  certain  kinds  are 
very  abundant,  showing  that  they  must  have  been  in  the  soil  a 
long  time,  but  could  not  germinate  away  from  the  air. 

Depth  to  Plant. — Most  of  the  common,  smaller  garden  seeds 
are  planted  one  inch  deep;  celery  and  some  other  fine  seeds 
cannot  be  planted  nearly  so  deep.  Peas  and  corn  are  generally 
planted  from  two  to  three  inches  deep.  Peas,  however,  are  some- 
times planted  as  deep  as  six  inches.  These  matters  will  be 
found  referred  to  under  their  respective  heads. 

Always  Sow  in   Freshly  Stirred   Ground,  as  the  seed  is  far 


SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING.  43 

more  liable  to  get  a  good  start  in  it  than  in  soil  that  has  lain 
untilled  long  enough  to  become  crusty  and  lumpy.    Then,  if  the 
seeds  are  planted  immediately  after  cultivation  has  been  given 
and  while  the  soil  is  still  moist,  the  weeds  will  hardly  get  the 
start  of  the  crop  planted  if  reasonable  care  is  used.     In  fact, 
following  this  rule  will  generally  insure  success  as  long  as  there 
is  life  in  the  seed  and  moisture  in  the  soil.    Again,  it  is  preferable 
to  sow  seeds  immediately  after  a  rain  rather  than  just  before  it 
comes,  since  in  the  case  of  the  finer  seeds  the  crust  which  forms 
immediately  after  a  rain  may  be  so  compact  that  the  young 
seedlings  cannot  push  through.     When  a  crust  thus  forms  over 
seeds  it  is  sometimes  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  land  before  the 
crust  is  very  compact  and  break  it  up  with  rakes,  but  this  should 
be  done  in  a  most  careful  manner  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds. 
If  a  crust  forms  over  fine  seeds,  such  as  celery,  tobacco  and 
others,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  crust  moist,  at  least,  until 
the  seeds  have  pushed  through  it.    Soil  that  is  much  dried  out  in 
midsummer  is  often   quite   an   obstacle  to  the   ready   germina- 
tion of  seed  sown  at  that  time,  but  if  the  seed  is  sown  shortly 
after  the  ground  is  plowed  and  somewhat    deeper    than    it    is 
generally  sown,   in  the   early  spring   and   care   is  taken  to  firm 
the  earth  very  carefully  immediately  after  sowing,  the  seed  will 
generally  come  up  very  quickly  at  this  season.     But  the  land 
should  not  be  worked  for  seed  sowing  or  for  any  other  purpose 
when  very  wet  and  sticky,  as  seeds  cannot  be  properly  planted 
in  soil  in  such  condition. 

The  Time  for  Sowing  the  various  seeds  varies  greatly  and 
will  be  founnd  referred  to  separately  under  the  several  heads. 
Some  seeds,  such  as  spinach,  onion,  lettuce  and  radish  may  be 
sown  as  soon  r.s  the  ground  can  be  worked,  while  the  seed 
of  such  tropical  plants  as  corn,  cucumber  and  squash  should  not 
be  sown  until  the  ground  is  well  warmed.  The  early  sown 
hardier  seeds  are  often  frozen  up  in  the  ground  and,  perhaps, 
covered  with  snow  without  injury;  in  fact,  a  covering  of  snow 
seems  to  help  seeds  of  the  hardy  kinds  to  grow. 

Sowing  in  Stiff  Clay  Soils. — It  is  comparatively  easy  to  make 
seeds  germinate  in  sand,  sandy  loam,  muck  or  soil  rich  in  humus, 
provided  they  contain  a  reasonable  amount  of  moisture,  but  in 
stiff  clay  soils  this  is  often  quite  a  different  matter,  as  the  land 


44  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

becomes  crusted  over  so  completely  as  to  prevent  the  smaller 
seedlings  from  pushing  through.  For  such  land  it  is  desirable  to 
use  rather  more  seed  than  would  be  needed  in  more  porous  soil 
for  the  reason  that  while  a  few  plants  could  not  push  up  the 
crusted  surface  yet  the  many  can  do  so;  and  while  thick  seed- 
ing increases  the  total  cost  of  seed,  yet  the  certainty  of  thus 
securing  a  full  stand  is  so  great  an  advantage  as  to  well  repay 
this  additional  outlay  and  the  expense  for  thinning,  if  it  has  to 
be  done  at  all,  is  about  the  same  for  thick  as  for  thin  seeding. 
Sowing  Seed  With  Machine. — When  the  soil  is  prepared  for 
best  work  with  a  garden  drill  it  is  generally  in  the  best  condition 
for  the  germination  of  seeds.  The  whole  surface  should  be 
fine,  mellow  and  even.  There  are  only  one  or  two  garden  seeds 
that  cannot  readily  be  sown  with  an3'  of  the  half  dozen  good 
garden  drills  that  are  offered  in  the  market.  Garden  drills  when 
properly  used  will  sow  and  cover  seed  much  more  uniformly  than 
it  can  possibly  be  sown  and  covered  by  hand,  and  they  are  a 
necessity  in  any  well-managed  garden.  It  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  have  straight  rows  in  the  garden,  for  they  are  more 
economical  of  space  than  crooked  rows  and  are  more  perfectly 
cultivated  with  the  wheel  hoes  and  cultivator,  besides,  crooked 
rows  are  unsightly  and  slovenly.  It  is  generally  desirable  in 
using  a  garden  drill  to  mark  off  the  first  row  with  a  line  to  get 
it  straight.  If  this  is  done  to  begin  with  the  subsequent  rows 
may  be  kept  parallel  by  using  the  marker  always  found  on  such 
machines,  providing  constant  care  is  used.  Some  growers 
prefer  to  mark  out  all  the  rows  with  a  marker  and  then  run  the 
seed  sower  in  the  marks,  but  for  a  careful  workman  this  is 
useless  labor.  Seed  drills  are  made  with  a  point  to  open  fur- 
rows, a  coverer  for  filling  in  after  the  drill,  a  wheel  for  compact- 
ing the  soil  on  the  seed  and  a  marker  for  the  next  row.  To  use 
a  garden  seed  drill  most  successfully  requires  good  judgment, 
but  a  little  careful  experimenting  will  soon  enable  any  one  ac- 
customed to  tools  to  handle  these  most  useful  implements  to  good 
advantage.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  sow  seed  when  the 
ground  is  so  wet  that  it  is  not  safe  to  firm  the  soil  over  it. 
When  such  is  the  case  the  rear  wheel  is  removed  in  sowing. 
In  other  cases  when  it  is  desirable  to  firm  the  soil  more  com- 
pactly, the  press  wheel  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  by  going 


SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING.  45 

over  the  rows  a  second  time.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  doing  this 
to  remove  the  drill  point  or  else  tip  the  machine  until  the 
point  is  off  the  ground.  In  the  case  of  a  few  seeds  that  are 
rather  delicate  about  germinating,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  the 
rows  a  second  time  with  the  seed  drill  and  thus  mix  the  seed 
up  with  the  soil.  This  method  puts  in  a  large  amount  of  seed, 
leaves  the  seed  at  various  depths,  and  some  of  it  is  sure  to 
grow. 

Sowing  Seed  by  Hand. — When  only  a  very  small  quantity  of 
seed  is  to  be  sown  it  is  often  best  to  sow  it  by  hand.  When  this 
is  the  plan  the  rows  are  made  by  the  garden  maker  and  the 
seed  distributed  in  them  evenly  by  hand.  The  rows  are  then 
covered  by  the  soil  being  drawn  into  them  with  a  rake  and  are 
firmed  by  passing  over  the  seed  with  the  feet.  If  the  soil  is 
dry  it  cannot  be  made  too  firm;  if  moist,  care  must  be  used 
to  prevent  packing  it  too  hard.  In  the  case  of  very  fine  seed 
sown  in  dry  weather,  many  devices  are  used  to  bring  about 
germination  such  as  watering,  shading  the  soil  with  boards, 
covering  the  earth  with  cloths  and  the  like.  ' 

Using  the  Feet  for  Firming  the  Soil  Around  the  Seeds. — 
Many  seeds  are  lost  from  the  failure  to  properly  firm  the  soil 
over  those  sown  during  dry  weather.  Many  devices  have  been 
suggested  and  used  for  securing  this  desirable  condition,  but 
for  general  garden  purposes  no  method  or  implement  ever  used 
can  vie  with  the  proper  use  of  the  feet  for  this  purpose.  While 
this  matter  is  referred  to  elsewhere,  it  is  put  under  this  special 
head  to  call  attention  to  this  useful  fact.  Peter  Henderson  was 
the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  this  method,  and 
describes  it  as  follows:  "After  plowing,  harrowing  and  leveling 
the  land  smoothly,  lines  are  drawn  by  the  'markers,'  which 
make  furrows  about  two  inches  deep  and  a  foot  apart.  After 
the  man  who  sows  the  seed  follows  another  who,  with  the  ball 
of  his  right  foot,  presses  down  his  full  weight  on  every  inch 
of  soil  where  the  seed  has  been  sown;  the  rows  are  then 
slightly  levelled  longitudinally  with  the  rake,  a  light  roller  is 
passed  over  them  and  the  work  is  done."  Those  who  have 
practiced  this  method  know  it  gives  most  excellent  results.  In 
my  own  practice,  in  sowing  seed  in  dry   weather,  even  with  a 


46  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

seed  drill  which  has  a  wheel  for  arming  the  soil,  I  have  fre- 
quently, and  to  advantage,  walked  the  rows  with  the  heel  of  one 
foot  close  to  and  in  front  of  the  toe  of  the  other,  pressing 
down  on  the  row. 

Thinning. — It  is  generally  best  to  sow  the  seed  of  most  gar- 
den vegetables  much  more  thickly  than  the  plants  should  stand 
when  mature.  This  is  done  to  make  sure  of  having  enough 
plants  to  stock  the  land,  and  it  is  a  good  practice.  It  is  im- 
portant, also,  to  let  every  young  plant  in  the  garden  have  room 
enough  for  perfect  development,  and  this  can  only  be  secured, 
where  thick  seeding  is  practiced,  by  thinning  out.  It  is  a  very 
general  fault  of  beginners  in  gardening  that  they  try  to  grow 
too  many  plants  on  their  land.  This  is  a  common  mistake 
and  is  no  better  in  result  than  permitting  weeds  to  grow.  Every 
plant  in  excess  of  what  can  properly  mature  on  the  land  is  in  its 
effect  a  weed  and  should  be  treated  as  such.  In  the  home  gar- 
den, where  the  thinnings  are  valuable,  as  in  the  case  of  beets, 
lettuce,  etc.,  the  work  of  thinning  need  not  be  done  all  at  once 
but  as  the  plants  need  room.  In  the  market  garden  it  is  best 
to  thin  out  the  full  distance  at  one  time.  Do  not  allow  the 
seedlings  to  get  drawn  and  spindling  before  thinning,  but  do 
it  while  they  are  young  and  before  they  crowd  one  another. 
The  proper  distances  between  plants  seem  very  large  when  the 
plants  are  small,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  later  on  any- 
thing less  than  the  proper  distance  injures  the  crop.  One  must 
have  determination  enough  to  throw  away  many  nice  plants  in 
order  to  make  room  for  those  that  are  to  mature.  It  is  better 
to  give  too  much  than  too  little  room  to  plants. 

Protection  to  Newly  Planted  Seeds  against  insects  and 
birds  may  often  be  given  by  slightly  moistening  them  and  then 
stirring  in  red  lead  until  all  the  seeds  are  thoroughly  coated. 
The  seed  should  be  dried  before  sowing. 

Crows  and  Gophers  May  be  Kept  From  Eating  Corn  by  coat- 
ing it  with  coal  tar  as  follows:  Wet  the  corn  with  hot  water 
and  drain  off  all  surplus.  Spread  it  out  about  four  inches  deep 
on  the  floor  of  a  warm  room  and  sprinkle  it  with  hot  coal  tar 
using  about  a  tablespoonful  to  a  half  bushel  of  corn  and  stir 
thoroughly  until  every  kernel  has  a  thin  coat  of  tar  on  it.    Then 


SEED    SOWING   AND   TRANSPLANTING.  47 

dry  the  corn  by  coating  it  with  dry  ground  plaster  or  other  fine 
absorbent    This  treatment  does  not  seem  to  hinder  germination. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Avoid  transplanting  as  much  as  possible. — Whatever  may 
be  said  of  its  merits  elsewhere  does  not  apply  in  this  section, 
since  the  dry  weather  so  common  here  in  the  season  when 
transplanting  is  done  often  makes  the  operation  unsuccessful. 
Undoubtedly  one  of  the  reasons  why  transplanted  plants  some- 
times give  better  results  than  seedlings  allowed  to  grow  where 
the  seed  is  sown,  is  that  they  are  allowed  more  room  to  develop 
in,  but  if  seedlings  that  are  not  moved  are  given  the  proper  room 
to  develop  they  are  just  as  good  and  generally  far  superior  to 
those  that  are  transplanted.  Transplanting,  as  a  rule,  is  an  in- 
jury to  plants  and  yet  it  is  a  necessary  operation  in  the  growing 
of  some  of  our  most  valuable  vegetables. 


Figure  16.— A  box  of  young  lettuce  plauts  after  being  transplanted  from  the  seed 
box.  These  plauts  may  be  moved  to  the  open  ground  or  to  hotbeds  or  cold 
frames  as  soon  as  they  crowd  one  another.  This  is  a  convenient  way  to  grow 
plants  in  dwelling-  houses  and  in  front  of  windows.  This  style  of  box  is 
often  referred  to  as  a  "flat.'* 

Success  in  Transplanting  is  dependent  on  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions. In  moist  weather  the  setting  of  plants  in  the  open 
ground  is  a  very  simple  operation  and  any  one  can  succeed  with 
it  without  much  effort,  but  during  dry  weather  the  gardener's 
skill  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  move  plants  successfully.  One  of 
the  most  important  elements  for  success  in  transplanting  is  a 


48 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


supply  of  first-class  stocky  plants  that  have  not  been  crowded 
in  the  seed  bed.  Such  plants  make  success  reasonably  certain. 
A  most  important  requirement  in  any  case  is  that  the  soil  be 
moist  and  not  wet  and  sticky.  If  it  is  very  dry  it  must  be 
watered  or  failure  will  be  a  sure  result. 

Shortening  the  Tops  of  Plants. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  shorten 
the  tops  of  cabbage,  celery,  cauliflower  and  similar  plants  when 
they  are  to  be  moved.  This  may  be  done  by  twisting  or  cutting 
off  a  third  or  even  one-half  of  the  tops.  If  the  plants  have  ex- 
cessively long  roots  it  is  a  good  plan  to  shorten  them  enough 
to  permit  of  their  being  handled  easily. 


Figure  17. — 1. — Cabbage  plant  with  long  stem  set  deep.  2 — Cabbage 
plant  with  top  twisted  off  before  planting.  3 — Cabbage  plant 
wrapped  in  manilla  paper  to  protect  from  cut  worms. 


The  Digging  of  Plants  should  be  done  carefully  and  every 
precaution  taken  to  get  good  roots.     If  the  bed  is  very  dry  the 


SEED    SOWING   AND   TRANSPLANTING. 


49 


soil  should  be  thoroughly  wet  before  digging  so  that  the  small 
roots  will  not  be  broken  in  separating  the  plants.  The  best 
time  of  day  for  transplanting  is  generally  after  4  p.  m.,  as  after 
that  time  the  moisture  in  the  air  increases  rapidly  and  the 
plants  have  the  cool  night  air  in  which  to  recover  before  being 
subjected  to  the  intense  rays  of  the  sun.  Of  course  if  the 
weather  is  cloudy  the  plants  may  be  set  out  at  any  time  of  the 
day.  If  a  little  shade  can  be  provided  for  the  newly  set  plants 
so  much  the  better.  This  may  consist  of  boxes,  boards  slightly 
raised  from  the  ground,  shingles,  inverted  flower  pots,  paper  bags, 


r 


Figure  18. — Tomato  plants  grown  in  a  compartment  box  to  facilitate 
transplanting.  Such  boxes  can  be  bought  for  a  very  low  price  and 
are  very  convenient  aids  for  transplanting  many  kinds  of  plants. 
They  are  especially  desirable  when  plants  are  to  be  sold  at  retail. 

a  handful  of  green  grass,  strawberry  boxes  or  similar  material 
that  will  protect  the  plants  from  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun. 
Firming  the  soil  about  the  roots  is  fully  as  important  as 
firming  the  soil  over  the  seeds  and  for  the  same  reasons.  It 
should  be  so  firmly  and  closely  packed  that  the  plants  cannot 
be  pulled  up   without  considerable  effort.     The   drier  the  soil 


so 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


the  greater  the  necessity  for  packing  it  firmly  about  the  roots. 
If  the  soil  is  wet  and  inclined  to  pack  hard  it  should  receive  only 
moderate  pressure  until  somewhat  dried  out.  The  firming  is  gen- 
erally done  by  pressing  with  a  dibber  or  the  ball  of  the  foot 
against  the  soil  on  one  side  of  the  roots  of  the  plant.  When  the 
transplanting  is  finished  it  is  a  good  plan  to  give  the  plants 
a  good  hoeing  at  once,  drawing  a  little  loose,  dry  soil  around 
them  to  act  as  mulch  and  prevent  evaporation.  The  holes  for 
the  plants  are  generally  made  with  a  dibber  (Fig.  10  or  11.)  A 
spade  is  often  used  for  this  pur- 
pose and  such  plants  as  small  on- 
ions are  most  conveniently  set  in 
small  furrows  made  with  a  wheel 
hoe.  In  every  case,  however,  the 
plants  should  be  set  a  little  deeper 
than  they  grew  in  the  seed  bed  and 
in  the  case  of  spindling  tomato, 
cabbage  and 
some  other 
plants  it  is 
a  good  plan 
to  bend  the 
stems  and 
bury  a  large 
part  of  them 
in  the  soil 
as  shown  in 
figure  17. 


&m 


Figure  19.— Transplanting  aided  by  the  Balbridge  transplanter,  which  takes  up 
a  ball  of  earth  with  each  plant .  The  illustration  shows  a  box  of  strawberry 
plants  just  taken  up  and  ready  for  planting  out.  In  planting  out  the  holes 
are  made  with  the  same  implement.  There  are  several  other  similar 
implements  for  the  same  purpose. 

Hardening  off  the  Plants. — Hardening  off  is  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  checking  of  the  growth  of  plants  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cause  their  tissues  to  become  firm  and  hard.  It  is  very  important 
to  have  the  plants  accustomed  to  cold  weather  when  they  are 
transplanted  to  the  open  ground,  or  they  may  be  killed  by  a  frost 
that  otherwise  would  do  them  no  harm.     Thjs  is  true  of  the 


SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANT 


51 


cauliflower,  celery  and  of  course  of  all  our  native  frost  tender 
trees  and  many  other  plants.  When  cabbage  plants  are  properly 
hardened  they  take  on  a  dull  blue  color  that  at  once  indicates 
their  condition  to  one  acquainted  with  their  peculiarities.  This 
hardening  off  of  the  plants  is  accomplished  by  gradually  subject- 
ing them  to  a  lower  temperature  than  that  in  which  they  grow 
freely  or  by  drying  them  a  little,  and,  finally,  thus  nearly  check- 
ing their  growth.  The  result  is  a  sort  of  ripening  up  of  the 
tissues  of  the  plants  and,  in  consequence,  they  will  stand  great 
hardship. 

Tomato  Cans  are  very  convenient  substitutes  for  flower  pots 
when  plants  are  grown  for  transplanting.  The  cover  on  the 
end  opened  may  be  melted  off  and  a  half  inch  hole  made  in  the 


Figure  20. — Use  of  tomato  cans  as  an  aid  in  transplanting.  A  box  of 
plants  in  the  cans,  ready  for  removal  to  the  field  and  one  can 
opened,  showing  the  ball  of  roots.  The  cans  are  held  together  by 
wire  twisted  around   them. 

bottom  for  drainage.  Another  way  to  use  them  is  to  melt  all 
the  joints  and  use  the  body  of  the  can  by  tying  it  together  with 
a  piece  of  wire.  Thus  prepared  the  tins  may  be  set  in  the  hot- 
bed or  cold  frame  and  filled  with  earth  into  which  the  seed  or 


52 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Ld    < 

X 


O 

-j  2: 


,^%^  *.z  '.I 


\  \ 

||     ; 

\ 

. 

,'     . 

■ 

|     : 

d  : 

U      : 

oo   : 

: 

q  : 

_i  i 

ui 

1 

O    j 

■  f- 

5< 

1 

&  j 

;      : 

o 

i  to  1 

a 

:  uj  ; 

i  q;  i 

:  uj 

:    DO  i 
\    £  i 
:     <  : 

i:  ce  : 

UJ 

u 

'■■:■  V-  i 

;l  ^  ; 

i ! 

Q 

1 ! 

Ul 

;j 

GO     : 

, 

; 

$ 

UJ 

: 

2 

: 

; 

: 

to 
u 

g 

O 

CL 

LO 

UJ 

>- 

o 

-J 

t- 

Dd 

< 

2 

£ 

o 

b 

M 

4n 

ft 

.•fclcfbe 

CO 
UJ 

CO 


CO 

.5. 

u 

UJ 

I-  ■ 


to 

UJ 

cr 

■  CO  + 


5.       ♦ 


*■       +       + 

9  .z    .^    eir 


r.rlr 


111! 

COO- 

si 

5* 


< 

Of 

J* 
g 

h-Q- 
ujtO 

l3.! 

CO 

a. 

2 
h 


5 

£\s*f»"ht 


Figure  21.— Plan  for  farmer's  kitchen  garden. 


SEED  SOWING  AND  TRANSPLANTING.  53 

the  plants  may  be  placed.  When  the  time  comes  for  planting 
into  the  open  ground  the  tine  with  the  plants  in  them  may  be 
lifted  with  a  trowel  and  placed  in  boxes,  to  be  carried  to  the 
field  where  the  plants  are  easily  placed  in  the  ground.  The 
tins  may  also  be  set  around  the  plans  on  top  of  the  ground 
to  protect  them  from  the  sun  and  wind.     (See  Fig.  20.) 

FARMER'S  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 

When  Properly  Conducted  the  kitchen  garden  should  be  the 
most  profitable  part  of  the  farm.  Too  often  its  confined  area 
and  the  laborious  methods  employed  in  its  management  makes 
the  labor  of  cultivating  it  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  returns. 
Instead  of  confining  the  garden  to  a  small  area,  it  is  better  to 
enclose  one  or  two  acres  of  good  rich  land  with  a  good  wind- 
break of  some  kind  so  that  it  will  make  a  garden  plot  twice  as 
long  as  wide.  Leave  a  headland  in  grass  about  fifteen  feet  wide 
all  around  as  good  crops  cannot  be  grown  next  to  a  windbreak. 
The  rows  should  run  the  long  way  of  the  land,  somewhat  as 
shown  in  figure  21.  If  the  garden  is  surrounded  by  a  fence  it  is 
found  a  good  plan  to  have  the  part  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  made 
of  movable  panels,  so  they  may  be  removed  when  cultivating. 

The  Arrangement  of  a  vegetable  garden  in  the  manner 
shown  in  figure  21  makes  it  large  enough  for  practicing  some- 
thing of  a  rotation  of  crops  in  it  and  permits  of  hand  labor  being 
reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  use  of  horse  implements.  The 
land  should  be  cultivated  flat,  except  for  a  few  special  crops 
such  as  celery.  There  is  no  advantage  to  be  gained  from  hilling 
up  around  plants  and  it  is  a  laborious  process  that  can  be  dis- 
pensed with  as  well  as  not.  When  irrigation  cannot  be  prac- 
ticed it  is  important  to  have  such  crops  as  celery  and  late  cab- 
bage on  moist  soil,  but  for  general  gardening  purposes  a  porous 
clay  soil  overlaid  with  a  sandy  loam  is  best,  although  a  good 
clay  loam  will  do  very  well  when  properly  cultivated.  Light 
sandy  soils,  especially  those  that  are  underlaid  with  sand  or 
gravel,  are  too  liable  to  injury  from  drought  to  be  reliable  for 
general  garden  operations.  The  garden  should  be  near  the 
house,  so  as  to  be  easily  accessible. 

In  planning  the  garden  it  is  important  to  put  all  the  peren- 
nial crops  together,  and  so  arrange  the  other  crops  that  those 


54  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

that  grow  best  in  rows  of  the  same  width  will  come  together. 
The  accompanying  figure  shows  one  plan  by  which  this  may  be 
done;  it  also  provides  for  a  part  of  the  garden  to  be  kept  in 
clover,  to  be  broken  up  about  once  in  three  or  four  years  and 
used  for  vegetables  in  alternation  with  that  shown  laid  out  in 
rows,  which  part  should  then  be  seeded  down  for  a  while.  This 
is  a  very  desirable  feature  of  this  plan. 


CHAPTER   V. 

SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIED 

TIES. 

Good  pedigrees  in  seeds  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
order  to  grow  good  crops.  No  single  factor  that  enters  into  pro- 
duction of  a  crop  is  more  important.  Where  many  kinds  of 
plants  are  grown  it  is  better  and  cheaper  as  a  rule  to  depend  on 
some  careful  seed  grower  for  seeds  than  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
raising  them,  although  it  may  be  best  to  raise  a  few  of  the  more 
important  kinds  of  seeds  for  which  one's  conditions  are  best 
adapted.  When  one  makes  a  specialty  of  crops  like  onions,  cab- 
bage and  some  other  vegetables,  it  is  often  advantageous  to  raise 
the  seed  oneself,  since  their  purity  and  pedigree  are  then  known 
and  no  risk  is  taken  about  it. 

Some  seeds  can  be  grown  to  better  advantage  in  one  section 
than  in  another.  For  instance,  cauliflower  seed  cannot  be  raised 
profitably  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  near  Puget 
Sound  and  in  a  few  other  places  in  this  country  it  can  be  raised 
to  good  advantage.  Most  of  the  cauliflower  seed  used  in  this 
country  is  still  imported  from  southern  Europe.  As  a  general 
rule,  however,  the  seeds  raised  in  one's  own  vicinity  or  in  a 
similar  climate  elsewhere  are  best  to  plant  if  they  are  properly 
selected.  Experience  seems  to  show  that  seed  grown  in  cold 
climates  generally  produces  an  earlier  crop  than  seed  grown  in 
warm  sections. 

Testing  Seeds. — No  matter  how  carefully  our  seeds  may 
have  been  raised  or  who  the  person  is  from  whom  we  received 
them  it  may  save  much  trouble  and  loss  to  test  them  before 
sowing.  This  may  be  done  by  sowing  them  in  a  box  of  fine 
loam  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  70  degrees.  The 
temperature  of  an  ordinary  living  room  is  about  right.  For 
this  purpose  use  a  box  about  four  inches  deep  and  the  size  oi 
a  soap  box;   sow  the  seed  in  shallow  drills  and  cover  the  bos 


56  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

with  grass  to  prevent  rapid  evaporation.  One  hundred  seed 
should  be  counted  out  just  as  they  come,  and  be  sown.  By  count- 
ing the  seedlings  the  per  cent  of  germination  of  the  seed  is 
easily  obtained. 

A  Simple  Germinating  Apparatus. — A  simple  method  of  test- 
ing seed  is  as  follows: — Take  two  plates  and  in  one  of  them 


Figure  22. — Simple  device  for  seed  testing  (open). 

place  a  folded  cloth,  woolen  flannel  is  preferable,  since  it  must 
remain  moist  for  a  long  time,  but  any  cloth  will  do.  The  cloth 
should  be  free  from  dye  stuffs  since  they  may  contain  injurious 
chemicals.  Wet  the  cloth,  pressing  out  the  surplus  water,  leav- 
ing it  very  damp,  but  not  soaked.  Place  the  counted  seeds  be- 
tween its  folds  and  mark  plainly  with  a  pencil  on  a  piece  of 
paper  the  number  of  seeds  put  in  and  the  date.  Then  cover  with 
the  second  plate,  as  shown  in  figure  23.     Plenty  of  air  will  get  in 


Figure  23. — Simple  device  for  seed  testing  (closed). 

between  the  plates,  and  the  upper  one  will  prevent  evaporation. 
The  temperature  should  average  as  recommended.  Common 
newspaper  or  wrapping  paper  may  take  the  place  of  the  cloth, 
but  requires  much  more  attention. 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.  57 

Sometimes  seeds  that  barely  germinate  under  the  excep- 
tionally good  conditions  that  exist  in  a  sitting  room  or  green- 
house will  not  grow  readily  when  planted  outdoors,  so  that  in 
testing  seeds  it  is  very  important  to  note  the  vigor  of  the  sprouts. 
Seeds  that  start  strongly  in  the  house  may  be  safely  planted  at 
their  proper  season  outdoors,  while  those  that  start  only  weak 
sprouts  indoors  may  be  worthless  for  outdoor  planting.  An  in- 
stance bearing  on  this  occurred  a  few  years  ago  at  Chester, 
N.  Y.,  where  an  onion  grower  planted  seeds  three  years  old 
which  germinated  fairly  well  in  his  conservatory  but  failed  to 
grow  outdoors,  while  fresher  onion  seed  sown  at  the  same  time 
grew  perfectly. 

The  Curing  and  Storing  of  Seeds  are  matters  of  much  im- 
portance and  greatly  influence  their  germinating  qualities. 
Seeds  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  while  being  cured,  or 
they  will  mould  or  sprout,  either  of  which  seriously  injures  their 
value.  Seeds  of  some  kinds  will  sprout  several  times  before 
entirely  losing  their  germinating  qualities,  but  they  lose  much  of 
their  vitality,  even  by  once  sprouting.  Moulded  seeds  may  some- 
times retain  their  vitality  unimpaired,  but  if  to  be  offered  for 
sale  their  dark  color  is  objectionable,  for  it  must  always  be  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  neglect  in  curing.  It  is  important  also 
to  prevent  seeds,  especially  tropical  seeds  as  those  of  melons, 
squashes,  corn,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  etc.,  from  being  frozen  un- 
til fully  dry.  The  freezing  of  green  or  half  cured  seeds  in- 
jures their  vitality  and  often  destroys  it.  This  is  well  known  in 
the  case  of  corn  where  the  seed  taken  from  an  ordinary  crib  in 
the  spring  often  fails  to  grow  while  seed  corn  from  the  same  crop 
properly  cured  in  a  dry  warm  room  grows  perfectly. 

Seeds  are  much  influenced  by  the  temperature  and  humidity 
of  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept.  A  dry  place  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  successfully  keeping  garden  seeds,  and  if  warm 
so  much  the  better  for  tropical  seeds  The  temperature  and  con- 
dition of  a  good  living  room  are  almost  ideal  for  storing  all  kinds 
of  garden  seeds.  Most  if  not  all  our  garden  seeds  are  unimpair- 
ed by  even  severe  freezing  while  perfectly  dry.  In  a  moist  place 
garden  seeds  lose  their  germinating  qualities  much  quicker  than 
when  they  are  kept  dry. 

Changing  Seed. — There  are  locations  so  well  adapted  to  cer- 


58  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

tain  particular  crops  that  some  varieties  seem  to  lose  nothing 
of  their  pristine  vigor  and  productiveness  when  grown  there  for 
many  years,  or  they  may  be  greatly  improved  in  such  locations; 
but,  as  a  rule  it  is  a  good  plan  to  change  seed  occasionally  and 
it  often  results  in  increased  productiveness.  This  sems  to  be 
a  fact  while  the  reason  for  it  is  not  so  plain. 

Stock  Seed. — When  seed  raising  is  a  large  business  it  is 
out  of  the  question  to  have  all  the  specimens  planted,  perfect 
in  every  respect,  but  nothing  should  be  planted  except  it  is  near 
the  desired  type.  Each  year  enough  perfect  specimens,  or  those 
closely  approximating  perfection,  should  be  selected  to  raise  the 
seed  for  the  grower's  use  the  following  season.  In  this  way  the 
quality  of  the  grower's  seed  stock  is  kept  up  and  without  such 
care  the  stock  of  seed  is  liable  to  seriously  deteriorate.  Seed 
so  selected  and  improved  from  year  to  year  is  termed  stock 
seed. 

Seedsmen's  Specialties. — Most  seed  growers  and  dealers  have 
some  few  kinds  of  seed  in  which  they  are  especially  interested. 
These  they  select  with  more  than  ordinary  care.  It  is  always 
desirable  to  order  seed  of  our  specialties  from  those  making 
a  specialty  of  our  favorite  kinds  unless  we  raise  them  ourselves. 
To  secure  the  best  it  is  well  to  order  early  in  the  season. 

Seedsmen's  Humbugs. — Almost  without  exception  every 
dealer  in  seeds  sells  humbugs,  that  is,  worthless  or  very  inferior 
varieties.  If  he  is  honest  he  offers  them  simply  because  his 
customers  want  them.  If  he  is  dishonest  he  is  very  apt  to  mis- 
represent and  praise  them  in  order  to  make  customers  pay  a  big 
profit. 

Novelties. — It  is  desirable  to  test  novelties  in  seeds  and 
plants,  but  this  should  be  done  cautiously  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
best  not  to  be  in  too  great  haste  to  try  new  things.  It  is  the 
general  experience  of  growers  that  not  more  than  one  in  ten 
of  the  novelties  in  seeds,  fruits  and  plants  is  any  better  than 
those  generally  cultivated.  In  the  history  of  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  the  average  of  desirable  seed  novelties  has 
been  even  less  than  this. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIETIES. 
There  are  laws  that  govern  heredity  and  descent  in  plants 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.  59 

as  well  as  in  animals,  and  by  intelligent  selection  and  breeding 
one  may  greatly  improve  or  even  originate  new  varieties  of 
vegetable  as  well  as  of  other  plants.  The  seed  stock  of  desirable 
new  or  improved  varieties  may  often  be  sold  at  profitable  prices, 
or  by  retaining  the  sole  ownership  of  such  new  or  improved 
kinds,  one  may  perhaps  raise  crops  that  have  highly  esteemed 
qualities  as  to  size,  shape,  color,  flavor,  hardiness,  season  ol 
maturity  or  other  features,  and  so  command  an  advanced  price. 
Thus  a  grower  may  sometimes  be  well  rewarded  for  his  care 
and  attention  in  improving  his  specialties,  but  careful  study  and 
persistence  Is  necessary  to  success  and  few  persons  are  keen 
enough  in  their  powers  of  observation,  to  succeed  in  this  line 
of  work. 

There  is  constant  tendency  for  cultivated  plants  to  vary 
widely  from  the  original  form,  though  this  feature  may  not  mani- 
fest itself  for  many  generations  after  cultivation  has  com- 
menced. The  higher  the  state  of  cultivation  to  which  a  plant 
is  subjected,  the  higher  are  the  chances  of  its  producing  new 
features.  In  nature  plants  grow  under  fixed  conditions,  so  they  do 
not  vary  much.  When  a  plant  once  commences  to  vary  from  the 
original  type,  the  changes  ofttimes  come  very  rapidly,  and  the 
possibilities  are  endless.  Thus  from  a  wild  plant  two  or  more 
feet  high  with  only  a  few  leaves  has  been  developed  (1)  the 
modern  cabbage  of  (a)  the  wrinkled,  (b)  the  smooth,  (c)  the 
red-leaved,  and  (d)  the  many  ornamental  kinds;  (2)  Brussels 
sprouts  with  numerous  small  cabbage  heads  on  a  stem  two  or 
more  feet  high;  (3)  cauliflowers,  in  which  the  inflorescence 
becomes  thick  and  fleshy;  (4)  the  various  kinds  of  kale;  and  (5) 
cow  cabbage,  which  in  the  Jersey  Islands  has  been  known  to 
grow  to  the  height  of  sixteen  feet  and  strong  enough  for  rafters 
oi  cow  sheds.  The  many  varieties  of  garden  and  field  plants 
are  conclusive  evidence  of  the  variation  of  plants  under  cultiva- 
tion. 

All  of  our  valuable  garden  vegetables  are  the  result  of  al- 
most endless  care  in  selection  and  in  a  few  cases  of  artificial 
2S  well  as  chance  crossing.  They  must  be  regarded  as  artificial 
productions  having  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  to  the  inferior 
wild  state,  which  we  must  constantly  try  to  overcome  if  their 
desirable  qualities  are  to  be  maintained. 


60  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  most  successful  breedinng  of  plants 
to  have  in  view  a  well  defined  purpose  and  in  selecting  seed  not 
to  vary  the  ideal  standard  of  excellence  sought,  for  such  varia- 
tion increases  the  difficulty  of  fixing  desired  characteristics. 

It  is  found  to  be  quite  a  general  law  obtaining  among  plants 
that  the  qualities  of  the  parent  are  much  more  potent  and  thus 
more  liable  to  be  transmitted  than  some  especially  desirable 
qualities  of  a  few  individual  fruits,  which  may  occur  on  a  plant 
otherwise  defective.  For  instance,  Liivingstone,  who  has  done 
much  to  improve  the  tomato,  selected  seed  for  fifteen  years  from 
the  best  tomatoes  that  approached  most  nearly  in  size  and  other 
qualities  the  best  modern  tomatoes  without  noting  much  im- 
provement. He  says,  "I  was  then  no  nearer  the  goal  than 
when  I  started.  Such  stock  seed  would  reproduce  every  trace 
of  their  ancestry,  viz:  thin  fleshed,  rough,  undesirable  fruits." 
It  finally  occurred  to  him  to  select  from  the  special  merits  of 
the  plants  as  a  whole  instead  of  from  the  best  fruits  without  re- 
gard to  the  plants  on  which  they  grew.  Improvement  then  came 
easily  and  rapidly  and  in  a  few  years  he  obtained  the  Paragon, 
Acme  and  Perfection,  varieties  which  were  vastly  superior  to 
and  have  entirely  supplanted  the  old  varieties  of  tomatoes. 
Again,  in  selecting  seed  corn  it  is  more  important  to  save  seed 
from  plants  having  ears  approaching  the  desired  size  of  cob,  ker- 
nel, etc.,  rather  than  to  select  the  largest  kernels  alone  or  to 
select  from  ears  after  they  have  been  pulled. 

When  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  ripening  period  of  a  variety, 
only  the  seed  from  the  earliest  maturing  specimens  from  a  plant 
having  the  largest  number  of  early  specimens  should  be  planted. 
In  order  to  fix  late  maturing  qualities,  seed  should  be  saved 
from  the  late  maturing  fruits  on  plants  possessing  these  feat- 
ures to  the  greatest  extent. 

The  continued  selection  of  any  seed  from  inferior  specimens 
results  in  the  fixing  of  the  poorer  qualities  even  more  surely 
than  the  selection  of  seed  from  the  better  plants  results  in  im- 
provement. By  judicious  selection  the  cabbage  has  sometimes 
been  changed  from  a  biennial  to  an  annual  producing  no  head 
at  all  but  going  to  seed  the  first  year.  When  cabbage  has  been 
grown  for  several  generations  from  stem  sprouts  and  not  from 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.  61 

head  sprouts  the  effect  has  sometimes  been  to  lengthen  the 
stem  at  the  expense  of  the  head,  until  the  seed  stock  becomes  run 
out  entirely  and  is  in  effect  no  longer  true  modern  cabbage  seed, 
since  it  has  partly  reverted  to  the  original  type.  An  instance  of 
this  occurred  in  a  neighborhood  in  Nova  Scotia  where,  for  the 
sake  of  economy  for  a  number  of  years  cabbage  seed  was  grown 
by  cutting  off  the  heads  and  planting  out  the  stumps  only  until 
the  stems  became  nearly  two  feet  long  and  the  heads  not  much 
bigger  than  twice  the  size  of  a  man's  fist. 

The  practice  of  solving  the  seed  from  plants  remaining  in 
the  garden  after  the  best  specimens  have  been  gathered  for 
home  use,  as  often  happens,  is  a  very  poor  one.  Under  such 
treatment  there  is  a  very  general  tendency  for  the  stock  to 
degenerate.  Where  seed  is  to  be  saved  in  a  mixed  garden,  a  few 
hills  of  plants  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  for  this  special 
purpose,  without  being  picked  at  all.  It  is  very  important  to 
save  seed  from  well  ripened  fruits  Very  immature  seeds  will 
often  grow  but  they  give  a  weak  though  perhaps  very  early 
maturing  plant  and  are  very  liable  to  disease.  According  to 
Professor  Arthur,  it  is  not  the  slightly  unripe  seeds  that  give  a 
noticeable  increase  in  earliness  but  very  unripe  seeds  gathered 
from  fruit  (tomatoes)  scarcely  of  full  size  and  still  very  green. 
Such  seeds  weigh  scarcely  more  than  two-thirds  as  much  as 
those  fully  ripe;  they  grow  readily  but  lack  constitutional  vigor. 
Professor  E.  S.  Goff  has  made  a  great  number  of  experiments 
along  this  line  and  remarks  that  the  increase  in  earliness  in 
tomatoes  following  the  use  of  very  immature  seeds,  "is  accom- 
panied by  a  marked  decrease  in  the  vigor  of  the  plant  and  in  the 
size,  firmness  and  keeping  quality  of  the  fruit." 

A  few  years  of  careful  observation  and  experience  in  follow- 
ing out  these  principles  in  the  breeding  of  plants  with  a  special 
object  in  view,  will  convince  the  most  skeptical  of  the  wonderful 
power  which  man  possesses  to  adapt  plants  to  his  needs. 

Cross  and  Self-pollination  of  Plants.— The  flowers  of  plants 
are  said  to  be  either  _elf-pollenized  or  crossed.  By  self-pollina- 
tion is  meant  the  pollination  of  the  female  organ  (pistil) 
by  the  male  element  (pollen)  of  the  same  flower  or,  in  some 
cases  of  the  same  plant  but  different  flowers  as  in  corn  and 


62  MONTHLY   CALENDAR. 

squashes,   which  have  two   kinds   of  flowers.     By  crossing  or 

cross-pollination  is  meant  the  pollinization  of  the  female  organ 
by  pollen  from  another  plant.  The  crossing  of  different  varie- 
ties generally  gives  increased  vigor  in  the  progeny,  but  its 
effect  is  variable  and  may  result  in  the  loss  as  well  as  in  the 
increase  of  their  desirable  qualities.  Most  of  our  cultivated 
plants  are  crossed  by  natural  processes.  The  crossing  of  differ- 
ent seed  stocks  of  the  same  varieties  of  plants  is  generally  a 
great  advantage,  since  it  generally  results  in  increased  vigor 
without  loss  of  desirable  qualities.  Seeds  from  self-pollenized 
flowers  are  not  as  productive  as  crossed  flowers.  Darwin 
found  that  cabbage  plants  from  seeds  that  had  been  crossed 
produced  nearly  three  times  the  weight  produced  by  self-pollen- 
ized seeds.  In  the  case  of  Indian  corn,  experiments  made  at  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  show  that  while  cross-fertilization 
is  not  necessary,  it  is  very  desirable.  Corn  grown  from  crossed 
seed  in  nearly  all  cases  was  clearly  increased  in  size  as  the 
result  of  crossing.  "Plants  grown  from  self-fertilized  seed  corn 
were  in  most  cases  notably  inferior  in  size  and  vigor  to  the 
plants  grown  from  hand  crossed  seed  or  from  seed  simply  select- 
ed which  was  probably  naturally  crossed."  "One  plat  from  self- 
fertilized  seed  had  nearly  half  the  stalks  deformed  in  such  a 
manner  that  instead  of  standing  up  straight  they  turned  off  at 
a  right  angle  at  or  near  the  point  where  the  ear  was  produced, 
thus  showing  the  tassel  on  a  level  with  the  ear.  Many  of  the 
tassels  were  very  deficient  in  pollen."  In  another  plot  from 
self-fertilized  seed,  nearly  all  the  tassels  were  abortive.  All  the 
plants  from  self-fertilized  seed  produced  a  greater  proportion 
of  barren  stalks  or  poorly  filled  ears  than  plants  of  the  same 
varieties  from  hand  crossed  seed  or  from  seed  naturally  fertil- 
ized. On  the  other  hand  the  flowers  of  barley  and  wheat  are  so 
constructed  that  their  flowers  seldom  open  and  hence  are  natu- 
rally self-fertilized,  but  even  here  artificial  crossing  results  in 
increased  productiveness. 

The  Effect  of  Cross-pollination  is  not  always  apparent  in  the 
progeny  of  the  first  generation,  but  is  frequently  plainly  to  be 
seen  in  the  crossed  fruit  or  seed  the  first  year.  However,  differ- 
ences may  appear  as  the  result  of  the  cross  the  second  or  later 
generation  which  were  not  suspected.    When  corn  is  crossed  it 


SEEDS  AND  SEED  GROWING.  63 

Is  generally  believed  that  the  effect  of  the  cross  is  apparent  the 
first  year  in  the  grain,  but  careful  experiments  plainly  show  that 
this  is  not  so,  and  that  flint  corn  grains  which  do  not  show  a 
trace  of  the  admixture  of  sweet  corn  the  first  generation  may 
produce  ears  the  second  generation,  showing  some  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  sweet  corn,  and  the  same  is  true  of  other 
kinds  that  are  crossed.  The  same  truth  undoubtedly  holds  as 
good  in  the  case  of  other  plants. 

Mixing  Varieties.— Practically  varieties  of  plants  can  be 
mixed  only  in  the  blossom;  and  in  order  to  mix  the  different 
varieties  both  must  be  in  blossom  at  the  same  time.  On  this 
account  potatoes  do  not  mix  in  the  hill.  The  varieties  of  some 
species  of  plants  are  much  inclined  to  mix.  Any  two  varieties 
of  corn,  melons,  squashes  and  cucumbers  are  especially  liable  to 
be  crossed  if  growing  in  the  same  field  and  in  flower  at  the  same 
time.  However,  two  kinds  of  corn,  of  beans  and  of  other  plants 
may  be  grown  on  adjoining  pieces  of  land  withut  danger  of  mix- 
ing, providing  that  they  are  not  in  flower  at  the  same  time:  e.  g., 
Cory  and  Evergreen  sweet  corn  if  planted  at  the  same  time 
may  be  grown  for  seed  close  together  and  will  not  mix,  since 
the  Cory  would  be  entirely  out  of  flower  when  the  Evergreen 
came  into  flower.  Melons  and  squashes  never  mix  together,  for 
although  this  belief  is  widespread  the  most  careful  experiments 
have  failed  in  getting  any  fruit  when  the  one  has  been  pollen- 
ized  by  the  other.  Neither  do  musk-melons  and  water-melons 
mix  together. 

Distance  Between  Varieties.— The  distance  which  should  in- 
tervene between  varieties  liable  to  mix  is  variously  estimated  by 
different  growers  and  is  influenced  by  various  conditions.  The 
pollen  of  corn,  grasses  and  many  other  plants  is  moved  by  the 
wind;  and  when  different  varieties  of  corn  flowering  at  the  same 
time  are^  planted  for  seed  there  will  be  more  liablity  of  their 
mixing  when  the  pieces  of  land  on  which  they  grow  are  in  line  of 
the  prevailing  winds  than  when  east  and  west  of  each  other.  If 
a  grove  or  hill  intervenes  between  varieties  it  will  often  prevent 
crossing.  When  varieties  of  each  plant  are  not  on  a  line  of  pre- 
vailing winds,  they  are  reasonably  free  from  mixing  if  500  feet 
apart;  otherwise,  at  least  1,000  feet  should  intervene. 


64  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Such  plants  as  melons,  cucumbers,  squashes  and  onions  and 
most  other  plants  with  conspicuous  flowers,  are  pollenized  by 
insects  to  whose  bodies  the  pollen  becomes  attached  and  is  thus 
carried  from  one  flower  to  another.  This  pollen  is  not  light  and 
powdery  as  in  corn  and  many  other  plants  but  is  rather  heavy. 
It  is  obvious  then  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  has  little  effect 
in  crossing  such  plants.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  different 
varieties  of  plants  pollenized  by  insects  should  have  at  least  1,000 
feet  between  them  to  prevent  mixing,  but  which  will  often  occur 
to  some  extent  even  with  these  precautions.  The  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  stock  seed  from  being  mixed. 


CHAPTER  Vi. 
GLASS  STRUCTURES. 

Glass  structures  are  becoming  more  numerous  each  season 
for  raising  vegetables  and  flowers,  and  are  destined  to  continue 
to  increase  in  use  as  the  wealth  of  the  country  increases.  They 
are  referred  to  here  under  the  head  of  cold  frames,  hotbeds  and 
greenhouses. 

Cold  Frames. — The  term  cold  frame  is  applied  to  frames  cov- 
ered with  glass  and  used  to  protect  plants  in  winter,  or  for  for- 
warding them  without  any  heat  other  than  that  derived  from 
the  sun.     It  is  the  simplest  form  of  glass  structure.     They  are 


Figure  24. — Movable  frame  which  may  be  stored  out  of  the  way  in  the  summer. 
It  is  generally  made  of  one  inch  boards  and  is  very  conveuieut  for  those 
using  only  a  few  sashes. 

generally  made  4y2  or  6  feet  wide  and  of  any  length  or  depth 
which  convenience  may  suggest.  The  sashes  for  covering  them 
are  generally  4x4^  feet  or  3x6  in  size.  The  location  should  be 
near  to  water  and  the  house,  preferably  sloping  to  the  south  and 
well  protected  on  the  north  and  west  by  buildings,  trees,  etc.  If 
there  is  no  protection  on  the  north  and  west,  a  tight  board  fence 
six  feet  high  will  answer  the  purpose.  In  making  the  bed  the 
following  are  requisites:  Enough  2x12  in.  plank  to  go  the  length 
of  the  north  side  and  the  same  length  of  2x6  in.  plank  for  the 
south  side  of  the  bed  and  2x4  in.  stakes,  two  or  more  feet  long, 


66  VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 

for  each  corner  and  to  support  the  sides  firmly  in  place  and  sash 
and  shutters  to  cover.  The  plants  should  be  made  into  a  box 
with  its  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  sash  and  extending  east 
and  west.  See  figure  24.  Those  forming  the  north  side  should 
be  six  inches  above  ground,  and  the  top  edge  of  the  plank  forming 
the  southerly  side  should  be  five  inches  lower.  Thus  when  the 
sash  is  put  on,  it  will  slope  five  inches  to  the  south,  as  shown  in 
figure.  The  planks  should  be  nailed  to  the  stakes,  and  end  pieces 
put  in.  The  earth  inside  the  frame  should  be  thrown  out  to  the 
bottom  of  the  planks  and  used  to  bank  up  the  outside  of  the 
frame.  The  soil  of  the  frame  should  be  of  the  best  quality  if 
plants  are  to  be  grown  in  it.  The  frame  is  now  ready  for  the  sash 
and  plants.  More  durable  and  expensive  frames  are  sometimes 
made  of  brick  or  stone  for  the  sides,  and  sometimes  four-inch 
strips  are  put  on  wherever  two  of  the  sashes  come  together,  to 
serve  as  a  support.  Frames  are  also  frequently  made  several 
feet  deep,  but  the  same  general  rule  applies  in  the  building  of 
them  as  are  here  given. 

Cold  frames  are  used  in  the  middle  states  to  winter  over 
cabbage  and  lettuce  plants.  The  plants  are  started  in  September 
and  planted  into  them  when  grown  to  a  good  transplanting  size. 
In  severe  climates  this  is  not  a  safe  method. 

Cold  frames  are  used  here  in  the  spring  for  forwarding  let- 
tuce and  other  early  crops,  and  still  later  for  melons,  cucumbers 
and  other  tropical  plants.  They  are  also  used  to  extend  the 
season  of  growth  during  the  autumn  months  and  to  protect  some 
of  the  half-hardy  plants,  such  as  spinach,  during  the  winter. 
They  require  ventilation  during  the  day  in  mild  weather,  and  on 
cold  nights  should  be  covered  with  mats  and  shutters  or  shutters 
alone.  They  are  very  inexpensive  and  very  useful  in  the  garden, 
but  where  the  materials  for  making  them  can  be  had  at  low  cost 
hotbeds  are  much  more  satisfactory  for  forcing  vegetables. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds  are  made  very  much  like  cold  frames, 
only  they  are  warmed  by  fermenting  horse  manure  or  other 
material  placed  under  the  soil,  and  hence  they  must  be  dug  out 
deep  enough  to  make  room  for  it.  The  amount  of  manure  neces- 
sary to  properly  warm  a  hotbed  will  depend  very  much  on  the 
season  of  the  year  at  which  the  bed  is  made  up  and  the  crop 
to  be  grown.     In  the  colder  northern  states  when  the  hotbeds  are 


GLASS    STRUCTURES. 


67 


made  up  at  the  beginning  of  March  from  24  to  30  inches  of  ma- 
nure should  be  used,  and  covered  with  six  or  eight  inches  of  rich 
soil.     Later  in  the  season  18  inches  or  even  one  foot  of  manure 


$<xsV* 


Figure    25.— Cross    section    of    hotbed. 


may  be  sufficient.  In  favorable  locations  hotbeds  may  be  used 
all  winter  for  growing  lettuce,  radishes,  etc.  This  is  not  often 
practicable  in  the  extreme  northern  states  and  cheap  greenhouses 
are  generally  used  there  during  winter  and  hotbeds  only  during 
the  spring. 

The  Hotbed  and  Frames  for  Early  Spring  Use  should  be  pre- 
pared in  the  autumn,  so  that  no  digging  will  have  to  be  done  in 
the  spring.  The  soil  for  spring  use  should  generally  be  put  into 
them,  covered  with  leaves,  and  the  shutters  and  mats  put  on 
to  keep  out  the  frost.  If  this  has  not  been  done  the  sash  may 
be  put  on  in  the  early  spring,  which  will  partially  thaw  out  the 
soil  in  the  bed;  or,  by  another  method,  more  manure  may  be 
used,  putting  it  on  the  surface  of  the  frozen  land,  and  the  frame 
may  be  set  on  top  of  it.  In  the  latter  case  the  manure  should  ex- 
tend at  least  one  foot  beyond  the  sides  of  the  frame  and  be  one- 
half  again  as  deep  as  when  placed  in  a  pit  and  the  frame  should 
be  banked  up  with  manure.  It  is  quite  common  practice  to 
make  movable  frames  of  one-inch  boards  large  enough  for  three 
or  four  sash,  as  shown  in  figure  24.  These  are  kept  from  year  to 
year,  being  set  on  top  of  the  manure  and  the  earth  put  into  them. 

Hotbed  Manure. — The  material  generally  used  for  heating 
hotbeds  is  fresh  horse  manure,  but  sheep  manure  and  even  spent 
hops  may  serve  the  purpose.  Of  animal  manures,  that  from 
horses  fed  on  highly  nitrogenous  foods,  i.  e.,  on  grain  foods,  will 


58  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

heat  best.  The  preparation  of  the  manure  is  very  simple.  It 
should  be  gathered  together  in  a  pile,  as  fresh  as  may  be, 
when  if  moist  it  will  generally  heat,  no  matter  how  cold  the 
weather.  If  it  does  not  start  to  heat  readily,  a  few  buckets  of  hot 
water  poured  into  the  center  of  the  pile  will  often  start  it.  When 
it  gets  nicely  started  the  pile  should  be  turned  over,  throwing  the 
outside  manure  into  the  center  of  the  pile  and  breaking  up  all 
the  lumps.  In  a  few  days  it  will  heat  again  and  will  then  be 
ready  to  go  into  the  frames,  but  do  not  put  it  into  the  frames 
until  it  is  heating  thoroughly.  Clear  horse  manure  heats  too 
violently  and  should  be  mixed  with  about  its  own  bulk  of  leaves 
or  fine  straw.  The  leaves  used  to  keep  frost  out  of  the  frames 
during  winter  now  come  in  to  good  advantage  for  mixing  with  the 
manure.  Of  course,  if  the  manure  gathered  has  considerable 
straw  in  it  this  admixture  is  not  necessary. 

The  way  of  putting  manure  in  the  frames  calls  for  some 
little  care.  It  should  be  broken  up  very  fine,  mixed  with  leaves 
or  other  material  and  spread  as  evenly  as  possible  over  the 
whole  bed,  taking  special  pains  to  have  the  frame  well  filled  in 
the  center,  as  it  settles  there  much  quicker  than  at  the  sides. 
As  the  manure  is  put  in  it  should  be  packed  down  quite  firmly  by 
the  feet,  taking  great  care  to  have  it  evenly  packed  throughout. 
Now  put  on  the  sash  and  cover  until  it  heats  well  all  through 
the  bed.  If  it  does  not  start  to  heating  quickly  enough,  a  few 
buckets  of  hot  water  should  be  added.  When  well  warmed 
through,  level  off  the  top  of  the  manure  and  cover  with  soil  six 
inches  deep.  This  soil  should  have  been  prepared  in  the  autumn 
and  protected  from  frost  by  mulching  or  put  under  the  leaves  in 
the  bed;  but  if  this  provision  has  not  been  made  the  soil  may  be 
searched  for  in  cellars,  under  strawstacks,  in  the  woods  under 
leaves  or  elsewhere,  or  the  soil  may  be  thawed  out  by  the  use 
of  sash  and  manure.  As  this  latter  process  is  tedious  all  experi- 
enced growers  prepare  their  soil  in  autumn. 

After  the  soil  is  put  on  it  should  be  left  until  it  is  warmed 
through  and  the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  have  germinated. 
Then  remove  the  sashes  and  make  the  surface  fine  with  a  rake 
and  the  bed  is  ready  to  receive  the  seed.  A  hotbed  made  up 
in  this  way  in  March  will  continue  to  give  out  heat  five  or  six 
weeks,  after  which  it  will  be  practically  a  cold  frame,  but  since 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


69 


after  the  middle  of  April  the  sun  is  pretty  high  and  the  bed  well 
warmed,  the  plants  will  continue  to  nourish. 

Hotbeds  require  more  water  than  cold  frames  and  more  care 
in  the  matter  of  ventilation.  They  should  not  be  started  until 
a  short  time  before  one  is  ready  to  use  them.  If  seedlings  are  to 
be  raised  in  them  to  be  later  on  transplanted,  start  only  enough 
sashes  to  grow  the  seedlings  and  do  not  start  other  hotbeds 
until  the  seedlings  are  big  enough  to  be  removed  into  them. 

For  the  ordinary  farm  garden  four  or  five  hotbed  sashes  are 
a  great  plenty  and  no  more  should  be  started  than  can  be  prop- 


Figure  26. — Fire  hotbed. 


erly  attended  to.  These  should  be  started  about  the  first  of 
March.  This  number  will  be  found  sufficient  for  all  the  early 
radishes,  onions,  lettuce,  cress  and  other  greens  for  the  table  in 
early  spring,  and  for  raising  tomatoes,  cabbage  and  other  vege- 
table plants  to  be  set  out  later  in  the  open  ground. 

Shutters  and  mats  are  used  for  covering  the  sash  of  hot- 
beds and  cold  frames  at  night  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation  of 
the  heat. 

Fire  Hotbeds. — Horse  manure  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 


70 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


be  used  for  warming  hotbeds,  no  matter  how  much  greenhouse 
construction  or  means  of  artificial  heating  may  be  cheapened, 
but  there  are  some  situations  where  it  may  be  more  economical 
and  convenient  to  use  a  forcing  bed  or  what  is  sometimes 
called  a  fire  hotbed.  This  closel»y  resembles  a  hotbed  in  out- 
ward appearance,  but  instead  of  being  heated  with  manure  a 

flue  is  used  to  take  its 
,..•--'**-♦...  place,  and  it  is  warmed 

by  the  smoke  of  wood, 
coal  or  other  fuel.  In 
this  case  a  pit  should 
be  excavated,  fur- 
nished with  permanent 
walls  and  a  good 
strong  floor  to  support 
the  soil  in  which  the 
crops  grow.  Ten  inch  terra  cotta  or  glazed  drain  tile  is  a  cheap 
material  for  the  flue,  or  brick  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  furnace  and  the  first  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the  flue  should  be 
made  of  common  hard  brick  and  have  a  lining  of  fire  brick  set 
in  fire  clay.  If  the  pit  is  not  over  thirty  feet  long  the  fire  box 
should  be  at  one  end  and  the  chimney  at  the  other;  but  if  much 
longer  it  is  better  to  have  the  chimney  over  the  fire-box  and  to 
run  the  tile  to  the  end  of  the  house  and  return  back  to  the  chim- 
ney. This  chimney  should  have  dampers  so  arranged  that  when 
kindling  the  fire  a  direct  draft  may  be  had  Into  it,  and  after 
starting  the  fire  the  heat  and  smoke  can  then  be  forced  to  go 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  pipe.  This  arrangement  is  de- 
sirable on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  a  draft  through  a 
long,  flat,  cold  flue.  In.  laying  such  a  flue,  it  should  rise  slightly 
throughout  its  whole  length  from  firebox  to  chimney.  The  fur- 
nace should  vary  in  size  according  to  whether  coal  or  wood  is  to 
be  used  for  fuel.  For  wood  the  furnace  should  be  18  inches  wide 
and  arched  over  the  required  length,  generally  4%  feet,  with  cast 
iron  grate  bars  set  in  the  walls.  There  should  be  an  ash  pit  of 
suitable  size,  and  both  it  and  the  fire-box  should  have  suitable 
iron  doors  set  in  brick.  The  illustrations  herewith  show  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  such  a  house.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  build 
a  low  shed  for  fuel  on  the  end  where  the  furnace  is  located. 


GLASS    STRUCTURES.  7! 

The  heat  from  a  flue  is  very  dry,  and  much  more  water  is 
required  when  hotbeds  are  heated  in  this  way  than  when  manure 
is  used  as  the  source  of  heat. 

A  Greenhouse  Hotbed.— A  greenhouse  may  be  heated  by 
manure  or  a  combination  of  manure  and  other  artificial  heat. 
In  the  following  lines  and  illustrations  is  given  the  plan  of  what 
may  be  called  a  greenhouse  hotbed  which  has  been  in  very  suc- 
cessful operation  at  the  Minnesota  Agriculaural  School.  The  de- 
scription is  from  an  article  on  the  subject  by  R.  S.  Mackintosh,  of 
the  Division  of  Horticulture. 

"There  are  disadvantages  in  hotbeds,  as,  for  instance,  the 
transplanting,  ventilating,  watering,  etc.,  must  be  done  from  the 
outside  even  in  severe  weather,  while  in  a  house  like  the  one 


rri»IBBM^ 


ELEV/mo'ri. 


TU\tt. 


Figure  28.— Plan  and  elevation  of  hotbed  greenhouse. 

shown  in  the  figure  these  operations  can  be  carried  on  easily. 
The  house  is  simply  a  hotbed  built  so  as  to  allow  a  person  to  go 


72 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


inside  to  do  all  the  work  of  caring  for  the  plants.  Figure  28 
shows  the  general  plan  of  the  house.  The  size  is  12x24  feet. 
The  roof  consists  of  sixteen  sashes,  each  3x6  feet.  Any  number 
of  sashes  may  be  used  according  to  the  size  of  the  house  desired. 
To  receive  the  most  sunlight  the  house  should  extend  north  and 
south;  the  light  will  then  strike  both  sides  of  the  plants.  The 
south  end  of  the  house  is  glazed  from  the  surface  of  the  bed  up 
to  the  rafters.  It  is  not  necessary  to  excavate  the  full  depth 
of  four  feet,  because  the  earth  that  is  thrown  out  can  be  used 
to  bank  up  with  on  either  side,  making  a  terrace  as  sloping  as 
desired. 

The  heat  is  furnished  by  two  to  three  feet  of  well  prepared 
manure  in  each  bed,  over  which  is  placed  five  inches  of  soil. 


Figure  29. — Sectional  view   of  hotbed   greenhouse. 

The  sashes  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  by  screws  which  prevents 
their  being  lifted  by  heavy  winds  and  at  the  same  time  allows 
them  to  be  removed  very  easily  when  desired  to  replace  soil  or 
manure.  Ventilation  is  provided  for  by  fastening  one  or  more 
sashes  with  hinges  at  the  bottom  so  they  may  be  rained  as  high 
as  necessary  at  the  top. 

Many  kinds  of  building  material  may  be  used  in  the  con- 


GLASS  STRUCTURES. 


73 


struction  of  the  wall,  beds,  etc.  Lumber  is  used  in  the  building 
shown  in  the  figure,  but  brick  or  stone  would  be  more  durable, 
though  it  would  add  considerable  to  the  first  cost.  The  posts 
are  three  feet  apart,  extend  about  two  feet  below  the  planks 
and  are  braced.  The  inside  rows  of  posts  need  not  be  quite 
so  strong  as  the  outside  ones,  and  need  not  be  braced.  When 
a  house  is  not  more  than  twenty-four  feet  long  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  support  the  roof  in  more  than  one  place.  This  is 
done  by  extending  two  of  the  middle  posts  to  the  rafters. 

In  figure  29  is  shown  a  cross  section  of  this  greenhouse  and 
the  way  the  sashes  and  rafters  are  joined  at  top  and  bottom. 
The  sashes  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  tightly  at  the  top  and  the  plate 
is  beveled  a  little  so  as  to  allow  water  to  run  off  quickly. 

There  are  sixteen  wooden  shutters  for  covering  the  sashes 
on  cold  nights.     These  are  made  the  same  width  as  the  sashes 

but  six  inches  longer. 
One  cleat  is  put  on  the 
upper  side  at  one  end, 
and  the  other  on  the 
lower  side  at  the  other 
end.  When  put  on,  the 
upper  cleat  is  against  the 
ridge  pole  which  leaves 
the  shutters  clear  for  the 
water  to  run  off.  They 
are  made  of  second  fenc- 
ing matched  and  dressed. 
In  this  house  there  is 
glass  over  the  path, 
which  is  not  necessary 
in  the  lean-to  plan, 
shown  in  figure  30,  where 
the  sash  is  all  on  the 
south  side  of  the  path. 
It  is  important  to  have 
crops  grow  as  close  to 
the  glass  as  may  be,  and  this  fact  should  be  carefully  borne  in 
mind.  This  style  of  house  is  susceptible  of  many  modifications, 
It  may  be  used  as  a  lean-to  on  the  south  side  of  the  dwelling, 


Figure   30.— Cross  section  of  lean-to  green- 
house hotbed. 


74  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

where  it  may  receive  a  little  heat  from  the  hous9.  Its  limita- 
tions are  about  the  same  as  those  of  hotbeds.  When  such  a 
house  is  intended  for  use  in  winter,  it  might  be  an  advantage 
to  so  plan  it  that  the  manure  from  one-half  could  be  renewed 
every  five  or  .six  weeks. 

GREENHOUSES. 

Greenhouse  is  a  term  applied  rather  loosely  to  glass  struc- 
tures of  the  larger  sort  having  special  heating  apparatus,  and 
used  for  growing  plants.  The  more  expensive  structures  are 
not  referred  to  here,  but  only  the  simpler  ones  such  as  are  most 
economical  for  use  in  the  market  and  home  garden. 

A  Very  Cheap,  and  Yet  Withal  Serviceable  Greenhouse,  is 
described  in  "How  to  Make  the  Garden  Pay"  and  the  publishers 

^  of    it    have    kindly    con- 

sented to  the  use  of  it 
here.  It  is  called  the 
"Model  Forcing  Pit." 
Figure  13  shows  a  cross 
section  of  this  house 
which  is  made  with  a 
valley   in   the   center,   so 

that   in   point   of  fact   it 
igure  31.— Market  gardeners    greenhouse.         .  ^, 

is       two       houses.      The 

total  width  of  both  houses  is  twenty-six  feet.  The  alleys  are 
dug  into  the  ground  in  each  house  eighteen  inches  wide  and 
eighteen  inches  deep  and  boarded  up  on  each  side.  The  beds 
on  each  side  are  four  feet  wide,  and  the  attendant  can  cultivate 
them  when  standing  in  the  alley.  The  peak  of  the  green- 
house is  only  four  and  a  half  Teet  above  the  ground  level  or  six 
feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  alleys.  The  sides  are  only  one  foot 
above  the  ground,  and  are  made  of  plank  nailed  to  cedar  posts 
and  banked  upon  the  outside  with  horse  manure  in  winter. 
The  roof  is  covered  with  movable  sashes  7  or  iy2  feet  long 
and  of  any  convenient  width.  Common  hotbed  sash  (3x6  feet) 
might  be  made  to  answer,  but  sash  having  larger  glass  than  is 
generally  put  in  them  is  best.  Large  sized  glass  is  preferable, 
12x16  inches  being  a  good  size.  A  light  framework  for  the 
sash  to  rest  on,  similar  in  construction  to  that  shown  in  figure 


GLASS    STRUCTURE 


75 


of  a  greenhouse  hotbed  is  necessary,  and  the  sashes  should 
be  screwed  down  and  ventilation  secured  in  the  same  way  as 
there  explained.  In  the  center  of  B,  where  the  two  roof  sections 
meet,  the  sashes  rest  on  a  plank  12  inches  wide  cut  out  %  by  8 
inches,  to  form  a  gutter  to  carry  off  water  as  shown  in  figure  32. 
The  center  planks  rest  on  two  rows  of  2x3  inch  posts,  two  and  a 
half  feet  long  and  twelve  inches  above  the  beds;  these  posts 
are  four  feet  apart  in  each  row.  The  total  length  of  the  houses 
here  described  may  vary  according  to  circumstances.  The  house 
from  which  this  plan  is  taken  was  100  feet  long.  It  was  heated 
with  a  second  hand  tubular  steam  boiler  which  at  an  outside 
temperature  of  zero,  has 
to  carry  about  five 
pounds  pressure  to  main- 
tain a  temperature  of  65 
or  70  degrees.  Two  inch 
pipes  conduct  the  heat 
from  the  boiler,  one  line 
of  pipe  running  up  each 
side  of  the  house  and 
both  returning  through 
the  center  at  B,  back  to 
the  boiler.  The  furnace 
room  is  an  excavation 
10x12  feet  and  six  feet 
deep  at  the  northerly  end  of  the  house,  built  with  a  good  wall 
and  roof.  The  length  of  pipe  required  is  450  feet.  In  the  ex- 
treme northern  states  more  pipe  radiating  surface  would  per- 
haps be  required  for  best  results.  The  entire  cost  of  material 
for  a  structure  of  these  dimensions,  boiler  and  pipes  included, 
amounts  to  about  $450.  The  cost  of  steam  fitting  will  have  to  be 
added  to  this,  but  the  rest  of  the  work  can  be  done  by  any  man 
of  ordinary  intelligence.  Mr.  Greiner,  whose  description  has 
been  largely  followed  in  the  above,  says  that  he  likes  the  pipes 
all  above  ground  as  here  recommended  for  forcing  vegetables, 
but  if  wanted  for  starting  seedlings  and  for  general  propagating 
purposes  the  pipe  had  better  be  placed  ten  to  twelve  inches 
under  the  surface,  and  encased  in  an  ordinary  three  inch  drain 


Figure  32. — Valley  in  market  gardeners' 
greenhouse  showing  the  way  the 
sashbars   are   attached   to   the   plate. 


76 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


tile  as  shown  at  D,  figure  31.     In  sections  where  fuel  is  high 
priced  the  beds  might  be  partially  heated  with  manure. 

Figure  33  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  lean-to  house  that  is 
easily  adapted  to  most  locations,  but  especially  suited  to  side- 
hills.  It  is  twenty  feet  wide  and  may  be  made  of  any  length 
desired.  It  should  have  a  boiler  room  on  one  end  or  at  the  back 
side  as  is  most  convenient.  It  should,  of  course,  extend  east 
and  west  so  that  the  slope  will  be  entirely  to  the  south  or  south- 
east. The  walls  are  made  of  cedar  posts  tightly  boarded  up  on 
both  sides.  The  alleys  are  two  feet  wide  and  planked  on  each 
side.    The  roof  is  shown  made  of  permanent  sash  bars  but  these 


Figure  33. — Cross  section  of  lean-to  greenhouse. 


might  be  made  of  movable  sash  as  recommended  for  the  model 
forcing  pit.  One  ventilator  is  at  the  top  of  the  roof  and  another 
is  in  the  side  wall.  Two  purlins  extending  the  length  of  the 
house  are  supported  by  small  gas  pipe  posts.  The  northerly 
bench  is  four  feet  wide,  raised  three  feet  above  the  alley  and 
is  filled  with  six  inches  of  soil  or  it  may  be  used  for  seed  boxes. 
The  center  bench  is  eight  feet  wide  and  may  be  solid  or  raised. 
The  southerly  bench  is  shown  filled  with  stable  manure  and  is 
practically  a  hotbed.  The  same  treatment  may  also  be  given 
the  center  bench.  But  where  the  plan  is  followed  of  making  up 
a  part  of  the  benches  with  manure,  it  is  well  to  have  some  or  all 
of  the  roof  glazed  with  movable  sash,  to  facilitate  the  work  ol 


GLASS  STRUCTURES.  77 

putting  in  and  taking  out  the  manure.  The  use  of  stable  manure 
to  supplement  the  heating  apparatus  is  a  practice  that  may  be 
economically  followed  in  locations  where  coal  is  high  priced  and 
stable  manure  abundant.  The  heating  arrangement  could  be 
either  steam  or  hot  water  with  the  flow  pipes  high  up  near  the 
roof,  as  shown  at  A  and  B  and  the  returns  at  C  and  D. 

Methods  of  Heating. — There  are  practically  three  methods  of 
heating  greenhouses,  viz.:  by  smoke  flue,  by  hot  water  and  by 
steam.  Heating  by  smoke  flue  is  described  under  the  head  of 
fire  hotbeds.  It  has  the  merit  of  being  easily  and  cheaply  con- 
structed by  anyone  having  some  little  ingenuity.  Even  when 
made  on  the  best  principles  it  is  probably  more  wasteful  of  fuel 
than  a  good  steam  or  hot  water  apparatus,  but  where  inferior 
fuel  can  be  cheaply  obtained  a  smoke  flue  may  often  be  used 
to  advantage.  As  for  the  relative  merits  of  hot  water  and 
steam  apparatus  for  heating,  it  is  probably  enough  to  say  that 
each  system  nas  its  earnest  advocates  and  that  very  often  there 
is  little  advantage  in  favor  of  either.  Where  a  very  large  heat- 
ing plant  must  be  used,  making  a  night  watchman  necessary,  it 
is  best  to  plan  for  steam  heating  at  low  pressure.  For  small 
greenhouses  perhaps  a  hot  water  plant  is  best.  It  costs  more  to 
put  in  the  hot  water  apparatus  because  it  requires  more  radi- 
ating surface  since  the  pipes  are  not  heated  as  hot  as  when 
steam  is  used.  Some  exclusive  merits  are  perhaps  justly  claimed 
for  a  combination  of  hot  water  and  steam,  in  which  system  hot 
water  is  used  for  heating  in  mild  weather,  while  in  severe 
weather  the  water  is  lowered  in  the  boiler,  a  regulator  is  put  on 
and  the  pipes  are  filled  with  steam.  It  is  probable  that  an  ordi- 
nary tubular  steam  boiler  is  the  most  practical  kind  to  use 
either  for  a  hot  water  or  steam  heating  apparatus. 

The  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  for  heating  a 
greenhouse  will  depend  on  the  temperature  to  be  maintained  and 
the  location  of  the  house.  In  a  general  way,  one  should  figure 
that  glass  houses  will  require  at  least  four  times  as  much  radi- 
ating surface  as  an  ordinary  dwelling  house  similarly  situated 
and  enclosing  the  same  number  of  cubic  feet  of  space.  In 
estimating  the  amount  of  radiating  surface  necessary  it  is  always 
advisable  to  consult  some  practical  person  acquainted  with  such 
problems. 


78  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

MISCELLANEOUS      MATTERS      CONNECTED      WITH      THE 

BUILDING  AND  CARE  OF  HOTBEDS  AND  GREENHOUSES. 

The  Sash  for  Hotbeds  or  Cold  Frames  should  be  about  3x6 
feet  or  4x4^  feet  in  size;  the  glass  free  from  blisters,  of  double 
strength  and  lapped  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  If 
lapped  more  than  this  water  is  liable  to  freeze  the  laps  and  crack 
the  glass,  and  dirt  will  collect  largely  between  the  glass.  It 
should  be  bedded  in  putty  and  nailed  in,  not  puttied  in.  Common 
window  sash  might  be  used  for  the  purpose  in  a  small  way  and 
temporarily,  but  it  is  not  strong  enough  to  last  well  and  besides 
as  the  sash  bars  run  both  ways  and  project  beyond  the  glass 
the  rain  water  cannot  run  off,  but  soaks  the  wood  and  leaks 
through  into  the  hotbed,  making  it  too  wet  in  places.  Also,  the 
cross  bars  in  common  window  sash  make  a  needless  extra 
shadow  that  is  objectionable.  Regular  hotbed  sash  is  made  with 
sash  bars  running  only  one  way  so  that  the  water  falling  on  it 
runs  off  easily  and  quickly.  Hotbed  sash  can  be  bought  of  sash 
manufacturers  or  may  be  made  at  home  by  any  person  having  a 
fair  amount  of  mechanical  ingenuity. 

Shutters  are  desirable  for  covering  the  glass  of  hotbeds  and 
cold  frames.  They  are  generally  made  of  second  fencing,  match- 
ed and  dressed,  and  in  size  of  the  same  width  as  the  sash  but 
about  six  inches  longer  with  a  six-inch  cleat  on  each  end. 

The  Mats  are  often  made  of  straw,  but  cloth  and  burlap 
mats  are  sometimes  used.  Straw  mats  are  probably  as  good  as 
any  kind  and  are  easily  made  as  follows  Make  a  frame  of 
2x4  inch  lumber  the  size  of  the  mats  desired;  four  feet  wide  and 
one  foot  longer  than  the  sash  is  a  convenient  size.  Stand  this 
frame  up  against  a  wall  and  tightly  stretch  four  or  five  tarred 
strings  eight  to  ten  inches  apart  from  top  to  bottom  so  as  to 
evenly  divide  the  four  feet  of  width.  Have  as  many  balls  of 
lighter  tarred  strings  as  there  are  strings  fastened  to  the  frame 
and  fasten  one  to  each  upright  string  at  the  bottom.  Commence 
at  the  lower  end  by  laying  a  wisp  of  straw,  cut  ends  out,  on  the 
string  at  the  bottom  and  fasten  it  there  by  twisting  each  of  the 
smaller  strings  once  around  the  straw  and  the  upright  strings. 
Next  put  on  another  wisp  of  straw  and  so  continue  until  the 
frame  is  covered.     Mats  thus  made  are  an  admirable  protection 


GLASS  STRUCTURES.  79 

against  frost  and  far  better  than  shutters  alone.  The  advantage 
of  having  shutters  in  addition  to  the  mats  is  that  they  keep  the 
mats  from  getting  wet,  which  makes  them  so  heavy  that  they 
break  easily  in  handling  or  they  freeze  solid  and  do  not  lie  close 
or  are  clumsy  to  handle.  Rye  straw  is  best  for  mats  and  it 
is  most  tough  and  durable  when  cut  partially  green.  It  is  often 
threshed  by  hand  so  that  the  straw  can  be  kept  straight,  but  it 
may  be  cleaned  by  a  threshing  machine  by  holding  the  bundle 
and  only  putting  the  heads  into  the  machine. 

Ventilation  and  Temperature  are  subjects  of  greatest  impor- 
tance in  growing  plants  under  glass.  The  various  classes  of 
plants  require  different  degrees  of  heat  to  reach  their  best 
development.  For  instance,  lettuce,  radish,  cress  and  similar 
plants  grow  best  at  a  low  temperature,  say  about  75  degrees  in 
the  day  and  40  to  50  degrees  at  night,  and  may  even  be  frozen 
without  serious  injury,  while  tomatoes,  egg  plants,  cucumbers 
and  melons  grow  best  at  the  higher  temperature  of  85  to  90  de- 
grees in  the  day  and  60  degrees  at  night.  If  the  former  plants 
are  kept  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that  given  they  are  liable 
to  become  diseased  and  infested  with  insects.  This  is  especially 
true  of  lettuce.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  high  temperature 
plants  are  kept  much  cooler  they  become  sickly  and  weak,  al- 
though tomato  plants  will  grow  in  quite  cool  temperature.  In  ad- 
mitting air  to  glass  structures  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
wind  does  not  blow  in  on  the  plants.  This  is  generally  best  ac- 
complished in  hotbeds  and  frames  by  blocking  up  the  sash  at  the 
ends  or  sides  with  notched  pieces  of  wood. 

The  temperature  of  any  place,  unless  otherwise  specified,  is 
the  temperature  there  of  a  thermometer  in  the  shade.  A  ther- 
mometer with  the  full  sunlight  shining  on  it,  will  record  about 
fifteen  degrees  higher  than  in  the  shade,  which  is  a  point  always 
to  be  borne  in  mind  in  ventilating. 

In  the  weather  of  early  spring  when  the  sun  is  getting  high 
the  middle  of  the  days  will  be  very  warm  and  the  nights  still 
quite  cool  and  frosty.  It  is  then  that  a  beginner  often  makes 
the  mistake  of  leaving  the  sashes  of  his  hotbeds  open  late  in 
the  afternoon,  and  the  beds  cool  off  more  than  is  desirable.  At 
this  season  of  the  year  but  little  ventilation  is  necessary,  and 
frames  and  greenhouses  should  be  shut  up  quite  early  in  the 


30  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

afternoon,  and  the  covering  put  on  to  retain  the  heat  as  soon 
as  the  sun  is  low.  In  the  warm  weather  of  later  spring,  the 
sash  of  the  hotbeds  and  frames  may  be  removed  in  the  day  and 
kept  on  only  at  night.  No  exact  rules  can  be  laid  down  for 
ventilating,  but  it  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  learn,  if  one  is 
observant  and  uses  constant  vigilance.  Many  persons  just  be- 
ginning to  use  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  fail  to  get  best  results 
from  them  because  they  neglect  the  matter  of  ventilation.  On 
cloudy  mornings  it  may  not  be  needed,  but  if  the  sun  comes 
through  the  clouds  it  may  warm  the  house  or  the  beds  in  a 
very  short  time,  so  that  when  they  are  examined  the  whole  crop 
has  been  injured  by  the  heat.  This  is  a  most  common  cause  of 
failure  by  amateurs  in  charge  of  greenhouses  and  hotbeds. 

In  nature  the  night  temperature  in  which  plants  grow  aver- 
ages from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  below  that  of  the  day,  and 
it  has  been  found  in  practice  that  when  this  condition  is  reversed 
the  plants  do  not  do  well.  This,  of  course,  can  be  easily  avoided 
by  a  little  forethought.  It  is  a  bad  plan,  generally  speaking,  to 
ventilate  much  in  cold  weather,  when  the  leaves  are  wet.  On 
this  account  it  is  best  to  water  early  in  the  day,  so  that  the 
leaves  may  dry  off  before  much  ventilation  is  required. 

Watering. — Plants  that  are  growing  slowly  do  not  need  much 
water,  while  those  that  are  growing  vigorously  need  a  great  deal 
of  it.  Growing  plants  need  water  whenever  they  are  dry.  In 
bright  warm  weather  a  rapid  growing  crop  in  hotbed  or  cold 
frame  will  need  watering  every  day  while  in  cloudy  moist 
weather  perhaps  no  water  will  be  needed  for  a  week.  In  fact, 
watering  in  cloudy  weather  seems  to  encourage  disease.  When 
applying  water  see  that  the  soil  is  wet  as  far  down  as  the  roots 
extend.  It  is  only  the  beginner  who  just  wets  the  surface  soil 
and  thinks  the  plants  sufficiently  watered.  If  plants  are  wilting 
for  want  of  water  in  the  soil  give  it  to  them  no  matter  what 
time  of  day,  but  it  is  always  a  great  advantage  in  such  cases 
to  shade  as  well  as  water  them  if  the  sun  is  shining.  If  a  long 
continued  spell  of  cloudy  weather  is  followed  by  a  period  of 
bright  sunshine  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  plants  wilting  that 
have  plenty  of  water  in  the  soil  surrounding  them.  In  such  a 
case  it  may  be  desirable  to  shade  them  somewhat  in  the  middle 
of  the  day  until  they  get  used  to  the  sunlight.     In  cold  weather 


GLASS  STRUCTURES.  81 

It  is  a  poor  plan  to  water  most  of  our  plants  at  night  since  the 
water  will  cool  off  the  air  and  the  plants  may  be  checked  in 
growth,  but  in  hot  weather  the  reverse  is  true  and  plants  seem 
to  get  more  benefit  from  a  good  soaking  in  the  evening,  when 
they  can  have  all  night  to  take  the  water  in,  than  if  it  is  applied 
in  the  morning  and  followed  by  a  hot  sun.  In  watering  hotbeds 
in  very  cold  weather  use  a  fine  rose  sprinkler  and  if  practicable 
tepid  water.  At  other  seasons  good  lake  or  cistern  water  is 
perfectly  safe,  and  is  generally  used  by  commercial  growers  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.    Avoid  getting  the  soil  water-soaked. 

The  leaves  of  lettuce  and  some  other  plants  are  liable  to 
burn  if  watered  when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly  on  them. 

The  Soil  should  vary  somewhat  in  texture  for  different 
plants,  but  all  garden  vegetables  will  flourish  in  much  the  same 
kind  of  soil.  For  use  in  glass  structures  a  light,  friable  rich, 
sandy  loam  is  best.  This  is  easily  obtained  when  one  has  been 
using  hotbeds  by  mixing  some  of  the  old  rotted  manure  which 
has  been  used  for  heating  them  the  preceding  year  with  any 
good  sandy  loam.  If  sandy  loam  cannot  be  had,  clay  loam  may 
be  used  and  sand  added  to  the  mixture.  The  manure  from  old 
hotbeds  is  especially  good  for  this  purpose  and  should  form  about 
one-third  of  the  bulk  of  the  soil. 

Boxes. — In  the  case  of  many  plants  having  small  seeds,  it 
Is  a  good  plan  to  start  them  in  boxes  instead  of  growing  them 
in  beds,  on  account  of  the  better  care  that  may  thus  be  given 
them.  When  plants  are  to  be  marketed  it  is  often  best  to  grow 
them  in  the  boxes  in  which  they  are  to  be  sold.  Frequently,  too, 
where  plants  are  started  in  the  greenhouse  and  then  moved  to 
the  open  ground  it  is  most  convenient  to  have  them  in  boxes. 
For  this  purpose  boxes  should  be  about  four  inches  deep  and 
the  size  of  a  soap  or  cracker  box,  wliich  may  be  cut  down  for  the 
purpose  and  thus  make  very  cheap  boxes.  Of  course  where  the 
market  demands  a  certain  number  of  plants  in  boxes,  they  will 
have  to  be  made  for  the  purpose.  The  lumber  for  these  can  be 
obtained  at  any  box  factory  and  what  would  perhaps  be  other- 
wise idle  moments  may  be  used  in  putting  it  together  at  trifling 
expense. 

Substitutes  fop  Glass. — Frames  of  the  same  size  as  hotbed 
sash  are  sometimes  covered  with  prepared  cloth  or  paper  sub- 


82  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

stitutes  for  glass.  Such  covering,  however,  will  not  allow  the 
sun's  rays  to  penetrate  it  easily  nor  is  it  so  effective  in  prevent- 
ing radiation  of  the  heat  as  glass,  but  under  some  circumstances 
it  may  be  very  desirable.  Sash  thus  covered  may  often  be  used 
to  advantage  in  the  latter  part  of  spring  by  alternating  it  on 
the  frames  and  thus  doubling  the  amount  of  sash  at  small  ex- 
pense. Or,  they  may  be  used  in  the  warm  weather  of  spring 
when  the  sash  needs  to  be  removed  entirely  in  the  middle  of  the 
day.  They  are  excellent  for  covering  beds  filled  with  recently 
transplanted  crops,  since  the  light  is  less  intense  and  evapora- 
tion less  under  them  than  under  glass.  A  convenient  way  of 
forming  these  sashes  is  to  make  frames  without  sash  bars  but 
with  one  or  two  wires  stretched  across  them  to  support  the  cloth 
or  paper  covering.  Unbleached  heavy  cotton  cloth  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  material  for  dressing  it  should  be  made 
of  three  pints  pale  linseed  oil,  one  ounce  acetate  of  lead  and 
four  ounces  white  resin.  Grind  the  acetate  in  a  little  oil,  then 
add  the  resin  and  the  rest  of  the  oil.  Melt  in  an  iron  kettle 
over  a  gentle  fire  until  well  mixed  and  apply  warm  to  the  cloth. 
When  paper  is  used  it  should  be  what  is  known  as  manilla 
wrapping  paper.  Paste  this  firmly  and  tightly  on  the  frame  with 
fresh  flour  paste.  Dry  in  a  warm  place.  Then  wipe  the  whole 
of  the  paper  with  a  damp  sponge  to  cause  it  to  stretch  evenly. 
Dry  it  again,  and  apply  boiled  linseed  oil  to  both  sides  of  it  and 
dry  in  a  warm  place.  Use  linseed  oil  that  is  free  from  cotton 
seed  oil. 

Shading  the  Glass. — In  the  hot  weather  of  late  spring  or  sum- 
mer the  sunlight  is  too  warm  for  many  plants  in  the  greenhouse 
and  it  is  customary  to  shade  them.  The  amount  of  shade  neces- 
sary will  depend  somewhat  on  circumstances.  This  shade  may 
consist  of  lath  screens  laid  on  the  roof,  but  more  commonly  it 
is  given  by  sprinkling  the  glass  on  the  outside,  with  a  wash 
made  of  white  lead  and  gasoline,  put  on  with  a  spray  pump  or 
syringe.  This  is  easily  and  cheaply  done.  It  will  generally 
come  off  by  autumn  or  may  be  rubbed  off  with  a  coarse  rag  or 
brush.  Whitewash  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose  but  it 
is  too  easily  washed  off  by  heavy  rains  to  be  desirable. 


GLASS    STRUCTURES.  83 

SOME    THINGS    TO    REMEMBER    IN    CONNECTION    WITH 
BUILDING  GLASS  HOUSES  FOR  PLANTS. 

(1)  That  all  joints  should  be  made  tight  and  so  far  as  pos- 
sible so  placed  that  water  will  not  lodge  in  them. 

(2)  There  should  be  just  as  much  room  in  the  beds  and 
as  little  in  the  paths  as  possible. 

(3)  The  glass  should  be  as  close  to  the  beds  as  it  can  be 
and  allow  room  to  manage  the  crops  grown  in  them.  It  should 
be  of  larger  size  for  greenhouses  than  for  hotbeds  and  in  size  not 
smaller  than  10x12  inches,  laid  on  sash  bars  11  inches  apart.  The 
larger  the  glass  the  better.  There  is  not  so  much  breakage  in 
large  as  in  small  glass. 

(4)  A  permanent  water  supply  is  very  desirable. 

(5)  The  glass  should  be  of  good  quality,  free  from  blisters, 
bad  waves  or  other  imperfections  and  what  is  known  as  double 
strength  glass. 

(6)  The  heating  arrangements  should  be  sufficient  to  heat 
the  house  easily  in  coldest  weather;  in  other  words,  it  should 
be  more  than  sufficient  to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  if 
crowded. 

(7)  Having  the  heating  plant  insufficient  and  then  crowd- 
ing it  in  severe  weather,  injures  the  heating  plant  and  wastes 
fuel  besides  being  a  trial  of  patience. 

(8)  The  ventilators  should  ^e  large  and  carefully  fitted  so 
they  will  close  tightly.  When  in  the  roof  they  should  be  open  at 
the  top.  If  they  open  at  the  bottom  the  moisture  that  condenses 
on  the  glass  forms  an  ice  ridge  on  them  in  cold  weather  and 
prevents  their  shutting  tight. 

(9)  The  smaller  the  sash  bars  and  framing  material  in  the 
roof  the  more  sunlight  can  reach  the  crop. 

(10)  The  greenhouse  roof  may  be  covered  with  movable 
sash,  but  it  is  generally  found  most  desirable  to  use  permanent 
sash  bars.  Where  severe  hail  storms  are  frequent  it  might  be 
well  to  use  movable  sash  and  take  them  off  in  the  summer,  but 
such  places  are  rare  exceptions.  It  requires  a  very  severe  hail- 
storm to  break  double  strength  glass,  when  at  an  angle,  as  in 
a  roof,  and  practically  there  is  little  risk  from  this  source. 

(11)  In  the  framing  of  greenhouses,  for  instances  for  pur- 


^4  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

11ns  and  posts,  gas  pipe  can  be  used  to  good  advantage.    It  Is 
cheap  and  durable. 

(12)  All  joints  should  be  painted  before  being  put  together; 
all  wood  and  iron  work  should  be  kept  well  painted. 

(13)  If  putty  is  used  in  glazing  the  glass  it  should  be 
bedded  in  it  and  nailed  in,  in  this  way:  paint  the  sash  bars, 
then  run  a  thin  coat  of  putty  along  them;  bed  the  glass  in  it 
commencing  at  the  bottom  of  the  sash  and  lapping  the  glass  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch,  on  the  same  plan  that  shingles  are  laid  on  a 
roof.  Fasten  the  glass  with  round  three-quarter  inch  brads,  us- 
ing four  to  each  glass;  put  more  liquid  putty  along  the  glass 
next  to  the  sash  bars  and  smooth  it  off  with  a  knife  even  with 
the  glass. 

(14)  Liquid  putty  is  made  by  mixing  one-third  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  one-third  white  lead  and  one-third  common  putty.  If 
too  thick,  as  may  be  the  case  in  cold  weather,  add  a  little  tur- 
pentine or  benzine.  It  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  but  the  best 
way  is  to  put  it  on  with  a  bulb  bought  for  the  purpose;  or  a  bulb 
may  be  made  with  leather,  having  a  large  quill  through  which  to 
squeeze  the  putty.  In  the  latter  case  there  must  be  a  hole  in 
the  side  or  end  by  which  the  bulb  is  filled  and  which  may  be 
drawn  together  by  a  string. 

(15)  Perhaps  the  most  popular  way  of  setting  glass  in 
greenhouses  at  present  is  by  using  square  glass  and  butting  the 
ends  together.  To  do  this  to  h?st  advantage  no  nails  or  putty 
are  used  and  a  special  wooden  cap  is  put  on  the  sash  bar  which 
holds  the  glass  in  place.  If  desired  to  have  the  glass  tight  the 
abutting  edges  may  be  just  touched  with  white  lead  before  being 
put  together.    This  makes  a  very  satisfactory  roof. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  VEGETABLES. 

In  this  chapter  only  the  more  common  insects  infesting 
garden  vegetables  are  referred  to.  There  are  many  others  that 
almost  yearly  cause  some  damage  to  our  crops  and  which  in 
occasional  years  cause  serious  loss.  But  to  enumerate  them 
would  require  more  space  than  can  be  afforded  here.  In  dealing 
with  them  it  is  well  to  remember  that  biting  insects,  such  as 
potato  beetles  and  blister  beetles,  are  generally  most  surely  de- 
stroyed by  arsenical  poisons  such  as  Paris  green  and  London 
purple;  while  sucking  insects,  such  as  plant  lice  and  chinch 
bugs  are  not  affected  by  them  but  are  most  readily  destroyed  by 
external  applications  such  as  tobacco  water  and  kerosene  emul- 
sion. We  should  also  remember  that  in  our  war  upon  injurious 
Insects  we  have  the  support  of  most  of  the  birds  and  of  the  moles 
and  shrews,  and  these  should  be  protected  as  the  friends  of 
man  rather  than  be  destroyed  as  is  too  often  the  case  among 
thoughtless  or  ignorant  people.  Moles  and  shrews  are  especially 
useful  since  they  work  under  ground,  and  feed  largely  on  various 
insects  that  are  difficult  to  destroy  on  account  of  their  living 
in  the  soil.  It  is  perhaps  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  shrew 
(often  called  mole)  will  eat  its  weight  of  insects  each  day.  In- 
sects are  also  liable  to  attacks  of  parasites  or  of  fungus  and 
other  diseases,  which  destroy  them  in  large  numbers  and  often 
in  a  very  short  time. 

When  insects  appear  in  small  numbers  hand  picking  is  often 
a  very  efficient  remedy,  but  when  they  become  very  abundant 
some  other  method  of  destroying  them  must  be  devised. 

INSECTICIDES  AND  METHODS  OF  DESTROYING  INSECTS. 

Pyrethrum  is  the  Insect  powder  of  the  stores.  It  is  made 
by  grinding  the  flowers  of  the  pyrethrum  plant  which  closely 
resembles  the  common  oxeye  daisy.  It  is  not  poisonous  to  higher 
organized  animals  although  very  destructive  to  many  kinds  of 
Insects.    It  is  frequently  adulterated  and  can  seldom  be  obtained 


86  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

of  good  quality.  It  also  deteriorates  very  quickly  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  On  these  accounts  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  get  sat- 
isfactory results  from  that  obtained  at  the  stores.  When  used  it 
should  be  diluted  with  about  five  times  its  bulk  of  flour,  with 
which  it  should  be  kept  in  a  tight  vessel  for  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  before  using  in  order  to  get  best  results.  When  thus  con- 
fined it  takes  up  the  poisonous  principle  of  the  pyrethrum.  It 
should  always  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  receptacle. 

Paris  green  is  a  refuse  product  composed  of  arsenious  acid 
and  copper  and  is  probably  as  safe  as  any  arsenic  compound. 
It  is  only  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  is  used  with  water 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  one  hundred  or  more  gallons  of 
water;  it  is  also  used  when  mixed  with  dry  substances,  at  the 
rate  of  one  pound  to  fifty  pounds  of  flour  or  one  hundred  pounds 
of  land  plaster,  road  dust  or  sifted  coal  ashes.  In  using  it  with 
water  the  addition  of  an  equal  amount  of  milk  of  lime  often 
prevents  injury  to  leaves. 

London  purple  is  composed  of  arsenious  acid  and  lime.  It  is 
often  much  cheaper  than  Paris  green  but  varies  more  in  its  com- 
position. On  account  of  its  being  lighter  than  Paris  green  it 
does  not  settle  so  quickly  when  put  in  water.  It  is  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  substance.  When  used  in  water  an  equal 
amount  of  milk  of  lime  should  always  be  added  to  neutralize  the 
free  acid  which  it  sometimes  contains  in  injurious  quantities, 
and  which  may  burn  the  foilage  of  tender  plants.  London  purple 
adheres  to  the  foilage  of  plants  longer  than  Paris  green. 

Tobacco  is  very  useful  for  destroying  some  kinds  of  insects 
In  the  garden  and  greenhouse.  It  is  especially  effective  aginst 
plant  lice  and  soft-skinned  hairless  caterpillars.  Where  smoke 
from  it  can  be  confined  around  the  plants,  as  in  greenhouses  and 
hotbeds,  it  is  common  to  use  it  in  a  smudge,  but  when  thus  used 
it  should  be  kept  from  blazing.  It  is  also  used  in  powdered  form 
to  keep  off  some  insects.  A  more  common  and  effective  way  of 
using  it,  is  as  a  decoction  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of 
tobacco  stems,  leaves  or  dust  to  two  gallons  of  water.  The 
tobacco  should  be  boiled  in  the  water  for  twenty  minutes.  When 
cold  the  decoction  should  be  used  undiluted  with  a  syringe,  spray 
or  otherwise.    The  decoction  will  not  keep  more  than  a  few  days 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  87 

without  spoiling.     Tobacco  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  as  well  as 
insecticide. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  a  valuable  insecticide.  It  kills  by  con- 
tact and  is  of  greatest  importance  for  destroying  sucking  insects 
such  as  lice,  scale  insects  and  soft  caterpillars,  but  also  kills 
many  biting  insects.    It  is  made  as  follows: 

Kerosene  oil,  2  gallons,  67  per  cent;  common  soap,  or  whale 
oil  soap;  %  pound,  33  per  cent. 

Two  pounds  of  soft  soap  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  soap 
recommended. 

Dissolve  the  soap  over  a  brisk  fire,  remove  and  add  the  kero- 
sene while  the  water  is  hot.  Churn  the  mixture  or  stir  rapidly 
until  a  creamlike  emulsion  is  secured.  If  well  made  the  kero- 
sene will  not  separate  but  on  cooling  the  emulsion  will  thicken 
into  a  jelly-like  paste  that  adheres  without  oiliness  to  the  sur- 
face of  glass.  Soft  water  will  give  far  better  results  than  hard 
water  for  making  kerosene  emulsion,  and  soap  that  is  made  with 
potash  or  soda  lye,  such  as  home  made  soap,  is  far  better  than 
most  of  the  soap  of  the  stores,  as  they  do  not  emulsify  easily. 
For  plant  lice,  dilute  the  emulsion  recommended  with  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  parts  of  cold  water.  The  strength  of  the 
application  will  necessarily  depend  on  the  insects  to  which  it  is 
to  be  applied.  For  such  insects  as  soft-skinned  caterpillars  the 
emulsion  should  be  diluted  with  not  more  than  ten  parts  of 
water. 

Kerosene  and  milk  emulsion  may  be  used  as  follows: 

Kerosene    2    gallons. 

Sour  milk 1  gallon. 

These  readily  form  an  emulsion  when  thoroughly  churned 
together.  It  should  be  used  the  same  as  other  soap  and  kerosene 
emulsion  mentioned.  Sweet  milk  does  not  emulsify  readily  but 
if  a  little  sour  or  even  if  very  sour,  it  unites  easily  with  the  kero- 
sene.   This  is  the  best  emulsion  where  the  water  is  very  hard. 

Carbon  bisulphide  is  a  very  inflammable  material  with  a 
disagreeble  odor  and  readily  vaporizes.  It  should  be  handled 
with  the  same  precaution  as  gasoline  which  resembles  it  in 
appearance.  The  fumes  which  it  gives  off  are  very  heavy  and 
are  poisonous  to  animal  life  when  confined  with  it.  On  account 
of  these  properties  it  is  used  for  killing  weevils  in  grain  or  peas, 


88  VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 

beans  and  other  seeds,  and  for  killing  gophers,  mice  or  other 
creatures  in  their  holes.  The  method  of  using  it  for  grain 
weevils,  is  to  fill  a  barrel  or  other  tight  receptacle  nearly  full  of 
seed,  then  sprinkle  on  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  for  each  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  seed  and  cover  the  vessel  tightly  for  several 
hours.  It  does  not  hurt  the  grain  which  is  just  as  good  and 
looks  as  nice  as  ever  after  being  treated.  The  germinating 
qualities  of  the  seed  are  not  injured  by  this  treatment.  When 
used  for  killing  moles,  gophers  and  mice,  the  material  should  be 
put  on  cotton  or  other  absorbent  and  placed  in  their  holes  closed 
with  earth  over  the  cotton. 

Catching  Insects  by  Light  at  Night. — By  suspending  a  lan- 
tern at  night  over  a  tub  of  water  having  its  surface  coated  with 
kerosene  many  night  flying  insects  can  be  destroyed.  Among 
those  that  can  be  caught  in  this  way  are  cut  worm  moths,  the 
clicking  beetle  (which  is  the  mature  form  of  the  wire  worm), 
and  the  May  beetle  (which  is  the  mature  form  of  the  white 
grub).  When  these  insects  become  especially  abundant  this 
method  of  catching  them  is  worthy  of  trial.  The  objections  to 
it  are:  (1)  tnat  it  is  the  larvae  and  not  the  flying  form  of  these 
insects  that  do  serious  injury;  (2)  few  persons  are  so  far  sighted 
that  they  can  be  persuaded  to  attack  insect  enemies  until  they 
are  suffering  from  their  ravages,  and  the  benefits  of  this  method 
will  not  be  felt  until  perhaps  the  following  year.  (3)  The  obser- 
vations of  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  show  that  insects  have  generally  laid 
their  eggs  before  they  fly  much,  and  only  the  male  insects  of 
some  species  fly,  and  the  females  are  nearly  or  quite  wingless. 
It  is  obvious  that  in  such  cases  catching  the  flying  insects  will  do 
little  if  any  good. 

Applications  of  Insecticides. — In  applying  insecticides  it  is 
generally  important  to  begin  their  use  as  soon  as  the  insects 
appear  and  not  wait  until  the  plants  have  been  weakened  and 
set  back  by  their  attacks.  There  are  many  and  various  machines 
for  distributing  insecticides.  The  machine  best  adapted  to  this 
purpose  will  depend  much  on  the  insecticide  used  and  the  extent 
of  the  operations  contemplated.  For  applying  liquid  compounds 
some  of  the  many  forms  of  spray  pumps  will  be  found  best. 
For  the  small  garden  where  there  is  a  variety  of  crops  grown, 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


89 


perhaps 


Figure 
tie 


what  is  known  as  knapsack  spray  pump  is  as  convenient 
as  any  general  purpose  ma- 
chine. Where  potatoes  are 
grown  on  a  large  scale  some 
special  spray  pump  that  can  be 
geared  to  the  wheels  of  a  wag- 
on may  often  be  the  best  to 
use.  Where  insecticides  are 
used  in  powder  form  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  scatter  them  on 
the  plants  through  a  coarse  lin- 
en bag  or  fine  wire  cloth.  When 
such  material  needs  to  be  eject- 
ed with  force,  a  fan  or  bellows 
may  be  used.  It  is  always  best 
to  use  poisons  in  a  liquid  form 
when  practicable  since  it  is  the 
most  economical  and  effective 
method  of  applying  them.  No 
insecticide  should  ever  be  used 
in  a  large  way,  until  it  has 
been  tried  on  a  small  scale  to 
see  what  its  effect  will  be  on 
the  crop  to  be  treated,  since 
plants  may  be  more  susceptible 
at  one  time  than  at  another  to 
applications  of  this  nature. 


34. — Colorado  potato  bee 
in  all  stages. 


COMMON  GARDEN  INSECTS  AND  METHODS  OF 
DESTROYING  THEM. 
The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle  (Doryphora  decemlineata.)— 
The  Colorado  potato  beetle  is  so  common  and  so  well  known  by 
every  farmer  and  gardener  in  this  country  that  it  needs  nd 
description  here.  It  came  originally  from  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  where  it  fed  on  the  native  sandbur  (Solanum  rostratum) 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  potato,  but  when  this  insect  came  to 
know  the  cultivated  potato  it  preferred  it  to  its  original  food 
and  has  since  become  a  very  dangerous  pest  to  this  vegetable. 
The  orange  colored  eggs,  varying  in  number  from  a  dozen  to 
fifty,  are  generally  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  potato  leaf. 


90  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

They  hatch  in  about  a  week  into  sluggish  larvae  which  feed  upon 
the  leaves,  never  leaving  a  plant  until  all  the  leaves  are  gone. 
They  also  feed  to  some  extent  upon  tomato  and  egg  plants.  When 
fully  developed  the  larvae  descend  to  the  ground  where  they 
pupate  and  emerge  as  perfect  beetles.  There  are  three  broods 
each  season.    The  beeiles  winter  over  in  potato  lields. 

Remedies. — The  number  of  these  pests  varies  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  The  chief  remedies  are  arsenical  poisons  applied 
to  the  foilage.  For  this  purpose  Paris  green  and  London  purple 
are  commonly  used.  The  method  of  applying  them  varies  much. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  one  pound  of  Paris  green  to  150 
gallons  of  water.  This  must  be  constantly  agitated  while  in  use 
or  the  poison  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  London 
purple  may  also  be  applied  in  water,  but  as  it  varies  somewhat 
in  composition  and  is  liable  to  contain  a  dangerous  amount 
of  free  acid,  it  is  safest  to  use  with  it  an  equal  amount  of  milk 
of  lime.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  use  milk  of  lime  with  Paris 
green.  Some  experiments  show  that  about  one  pound  of  lime, 
one  pound  London  purple  and  about  seventy  gallons  of  water,  is 
a  safe  and  satisfactory  formula  to  use  for  this  crop.  When  thus 
applied  the  work  may  be  done  with  a  spraying  machine,  a  water- 
ing pot  or  brush  broom,  but  the  spray  pump  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical. On  a  large  scale,  some  kind  of  a  spraying  apparatus 
is  necessary. 

These  poisons  may  also  be  safely  applied  when  mixed  with 
one  hundred  times  their  bulk  of  flour,  sifted  ashes  or  road  dust 
or  mixed  with  one  hundred  pounds  of  land  plaster.  When  thus 
used  they  are  easily  applied  by  means  of  a  coarse  linen  bag. 
There  are  a  number  of  proprietary  insecticides  for  the  potato 
beetle  but  they  generally  depend  for  their  success  on  the  arsenic 
they  contain.  But  no  matter  what  insecticide  is  applied,  in  order 
to  do  the  most  good  it  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the  young  larvae 
can  be  seen  on  the  leaves. 

The  Imported  and  Native  Cabbage  Worm  (Pieris  sp.). — 
The  imported  cabbage  worm  resembles  our  native  species  and 
both  of  them  are  very  destructive  to  cabbage,  turnip,  cauliflower 
and  similar  vegetables  and  to  such  flowering  plants  as  mignon- 
ette, stocks  and  nasturtiums.  They  feed  on  the  leaves  and 
wilj  often  destroy  the  cabbage  crop  unless  preventive  measures 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


91 


are  taken.  The  worms  of  the  imported  species  are  green  in 
color,  while  our  native  species  are  bluish  with  yellow  stripes. 
The  butterflies  of  both  species  are  much  alike.    They  are  gener- 


Fiff.  35.  '  Imported  Cabbage  Worm.-  .  (a)    Larvae. 

butterfly. 


•  c)  Male 


ally  white  with  indefinite  black  marks  above  and  yellow  or  green 
markings  on  the  underside, 
and  are  commonly  seen  flit- 
ting over  fields  of  cabbage  or 
of  other  of  its  food  plants 
during  the  day  time.  The  full 
grown  caterpillar  is  about 
an    inch    and    a    half    long. 

The  winter  is  passed  in  the  V/[ / /  I /isW^\\\\\ 

chrysalis  stage  hidden  away 
in  sheltered  places  and  from 

these  the  adult  butterfly  emerges  in  the  spring  and  lays  her  eggs 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  where  they  hatch  in  about  one 
week.    There  are  several  broods  in  a  season. 

Remedies. — Pyrethrum  powder,  mixed  with  five  times  its 
bulk  of  flour  and  dusted  into  the  cabbage  just  at  nightfall  is 
a  good  remedy.  The  flour  should  be  mixed  with  the  pyrethrum 
overnight.  In  a  small  way  hand  picking  may  be  successfully 
resorted  to.  If  the  worms  are  troublesome  where  cabbage  is 
grown  on  a  large  scale  it  is  customary  to  use  arsenical  poison 
mixed  with  flour  as  recommended  for  the  potato  bug.  The  poison 
cannot  be  applied  in  water  as  it  will  not  stick  to  the  leaves. 


92 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


These,  it  is  evident  to  anyone,  can  be  safely  applied  before  the 
plants  commence  to  head,  and  recent  careful  trials  and  analy- 
ses of  cabbage  thus  treated  with  Paris  green,  show  there  is  very 
little  danger  in  using  it  at  any  stage  of  the  plants.  It  is  the  sim- 
plest of  remedies  and  effective  yet  not  dangerous.  There  are 
parasites  that  attack  and  kill  the  worms  and  chrysalides,  and  Dr. 
Lugger  has  shown  clearly  that  they  sometimes  may  be  destroyed 
very  rapidly  by  disease  as  well  as  insect  parasites.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  have  nearly  all  these  worms  die  in  the  latter  part 
of  any  season  from  one  or  both  of  these  causes. 

Cabbage  Plusia.  (Plusia  brassicae.) — The  cabbage  plusia  eats 
irregular  holes  in  the  leaves,  and  burrows  into  the  heads  of 
the  cabbage.     The  parent  insect  is  a  moth  of  a  dark-gray  color 


Figure  37. — Snapping  beetle  or  wire  worm  with  larvae. 


distinguished  by  a  silver  mark  on  each  wing.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  singly  or  in  clusters.  They 
soon  hatch  into  pale  green  translucent  worms,  marked  with 
paler  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  back  and  sides.  When  full 
grown  these  are  about  two  inches  long.  They  resemble  span 
worms  in  their  mode  of  locomotion,  hence  are  easily  distinguished 
from  the  cabbage  worm.  The  full  grown  caterpillar  spins  a 
cocoon,  generally  on  the  under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaf,  in  which 
it  undergoes  its  changes.  The  insect  winters  over  in  the  pupal 
state.     The    remedies    for    this    pest    are    the    same    as    those 


INJURIOUS   INSECTS. 


93 


recommended  for  cabbage  worms  and  it  is  also  subject  to  dis- 
eases and  parasites. 

Wire  Worms  or  Drill  Worms  (Elator). — Wire  worms  cause 
damage  by  boring  into  potatoes  and  some  seeds  in  the  ground. 
They  are  the  larvae  of  a  snapping  or  clicking  beetle,  so  called 
from  the  ease  with  which,  if  laid  on  their  backs,  they  spring 
into  the  air  with  a  clicking  noise.  The  larvae  are  slender  wire- 
like worms  having  a  glassy  tough  skin  of  a  yellowish  or  brown- 
ish color.  The  larvae  stage  lasts  for  two  and  possibly  five  years; 
it  is  therefore  no  small  job  to  clear  a  piece  of  land  badly  in- 
fested with  the  pest.  Naturally,  wire  worms  live  in  grass  land 
where  the  harm  they  do  is  not  apparent,  but  when  such  land  is 
planted  to  corn  or  potatoes  and  the  worms  are  thus  depived  of 
their  natural  food  they  may  become  very  troublesome. 

Remedies. — Late  fall  plowing  is  desirable  for  land  infested 
with  wire  worms  since  it  exposes  and  thus  kills  all  that  are 
ready  to  pupate.  By  clean  summer  fallowing  the  land  one  season 
the  worms  are  starved  out,  if  no  plants  whatever  are  permitted 
to  grow  on  it. 

Cut  Worms  (Agrotis  sp.). — Cut  worms  often  cause  serious 
injury  by  eating  vegetable  plants.     They  are  generally  most  in- 


Figure 


Cut  worm  and  moth. 


jurious  while  the  plants  are  small,  when  they  often  bite  off 
young  cabbage,  bean,  corn  or  other  plants  close  to  or  just  under 
the  ground  and  thus  destroy  them.  Their  work  is  most  percep- 
tible in  the  spring  on  account  of  the  small  amount  of  growing 
vegetation  at  that  time,  yet  they  also  work  in  the  autumn.  True 
cut  worms  are  the  larvae  of  several  night  flying  moths  which 
appear  late  in  summer.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  late  in 
the   summer.     These   soon  hatch   into   worms   which   enter   the 


94  VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 

ground  and  live  near  the  surface  on  the  tender  riots  of  grass 
and  other  plants  until  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  They  then 
descend  deeper  into  the  ground  and  remain  torpid  until  spring, 
when  they  come  to  the  surface  and  again  commence  their  depre- 
dations. Cut  worms  when  full  grown,  are  from  one  and  a  quarter 
to  one  and  three-quarter  inches  long  and  rather  large  in  diameter 
as  compared  with  the  length.  Their  skin  is  of  some  dull  color, 
smooth,  with  often  dull  stripes  and  bands. 

Remedies. — Cut  worms  are  most  injurious  in  sod  land  or  land 
on  which  weeds  have  been  permitted  to  grow  in  autumn,  or  in 
land  adjacent  thereto.  They  are  not  liable  to  winter  over  on  any 
land  that  is  kept  free  from  weeds  and  grass  in  autumn,  since 
there  is  no  food  for  them  in  such  places.  The  worms  feed  almost 
entirely  by  night  and  hide  during  the  day  time  under  clods  or 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  near  where  they  have 
been  working.  In  a  small  way  they  may  be  dug  out  and  destroy- 
ed, but  in  fields  and  on  a  large  scale  this  is  impossible  and  a  good 
remedy  is  to  scatter  baits  of  poisoned  clover  through  the  fields. 
This  is  easily  prepared  by  dipping  clover  into  Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple  and  water.  A  dough  made  of  bran  and  Paris  green 
sprinkled  about  the  plants  will  often  be  found  very  satisfactory 
in  destroying  cut  worms,  and  sometimes  will  work  even  better 
than  clover  for  this  purpose.  Where  cut  worms  are  abundant  a 
larger  amount  than  usual  of  seed  should  be  planted  that  a  good 
stand  may  be  secured  even  if  the  worms  do  get  some  oi  it. 
When  plants  such  as  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  tomatoes  are  plant- 
ed out,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  wrap  the  plants  with  pieces  of  stout 
paper  extending  about  an  inch  below  and  three  inches  above 
the  ground.  When  boxes  or  tomato  cans  are  set  around  plants 
for  shade,  they  afford  a  good  protection  from  this  pest.  Protec- 
tion from  cut  worms  to  hills  of  melons,  cucumbers  and  similar 
plants,  may  be  given  by  pieces  of  pasteboard  or  tin.  These 
should  be  cut  about  three  inches  wide  and  sufficiently  long  to 
encircle  the  hill.  They  should  be  set  about  an  inch  deep  in  the 
ground.  Spraying  the  plants  with  London  purple  or  Paris  green 
is  a  good  remedy.  The  moths  of  cut  worms,  as  well  as  such 
insects  as  adult  wire  worms  and  grub  worms  may  be  killed  at 
night  by  means  of  a  lantern  suspended  over  a  tub  of  water  having 
a  little  kerosene  on  its  surface.  This  should  be  done  late  in  the 
summer  when  the  moths  of  cut  worms  are  abundant. 


INJURIOUS    INSECTS. 


95 


Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.  (Diabrotica  vittata.) — This  little 
beetle  attacks  squashes,  cucumbers  and  melons 
when  they  are  young.  By  eating  the  foliage 
and  tender  stems  they  may  cause  the  death  of 
the  young  plants.  When  abundant  it  is  a  very 
difficult  pest  to  combat.    It  appears  in  the  spring 

Fc?cttumbe7bleul?  at  Just  about  tne  time  tne  young  squash  plants 
are  out  of  the  ground,  having  wintered  over  in  brush  piles  or 
other  places  affording  protection.  The  beetle  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
roots  of  corn  where  the  young  do  considerable  damage.  These 
worms,  are  full  grown  in  about  one  month  from  hatching 
They  then  leave  the  roots,  make  a  little  cavity  in  the  earth  near 
by,  and  undergo  their  changes.  The  insects  spend  the  winter  in 
the  beetle  stage.  The  beetle  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long 
and  is  striped  with  yellow  and  black.  It  is  very  quick  in  its 
movements  but  does  not  fly  much  except  in  the  middle  of  the 
day. 

Remedies. — An  extra  amount  of  seed  should  be  sown  so  as 

to  secure  a  good  stand 
and  still  allow  some  for 
the  beetles.  Dusting  the 
vines,  stems  and  leaves 
when  they  are  moist, 
with  air  slaked  lime, 
road  dust  or  similar 
material  containing  a 
little  Paris  green  or 
other  poison,  is  quite  a 
protection,  and  if  per- 
sistently followed  up  aft- 
er every  rain  will  gen- 
erally prevent  serious 
loss.  But  care  should 
be  taken  to  put  the  dust 
on  the  stems  as  well  as 
the  leaves.  Paris  green 
and  water  is  also  a  good 

Figure  40-Cheese  cloth  screen  for  protecting  remedy  and  is  applied 
cucumber,  squashes  and  melon  vines  from  the  game  ag  for  the 
the  striped  beetle  when  young.  oamc      a*      i"i      m<= 


96  VEGETABLE  GARDENING, 

potato  beetle.  Tobacco  dust  is  also  an  excellent  preventative 
used  in  this  way.  Some  gardeners  having  quite  extensive  plant- 
ings, and  many  who  are  working  in  a  small  way,  prefer  to  cover 
each  hill  with  a  box  or  frame  covered  with  cheese  cloth.  In  this 
case,  the  edges  of  the  box  or  frame  should  be  sunk  an  inch  or  so 
in  the  ground  to  keep  out  the  bugs.  Frames  for  this  purpose  are 
readily  made  of  barrel  hoops  cut  in  halves  and  fastened  together 
or  of  three  slender  sticks  forming  a  sort  of  tent.  This  method 
allows  the  light  and  air  to  circulate  freely  around  the  plants, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  are  perfectly  protected  and  at  slight 
cost. 

White   Grub   or    May 
Beetles        (Lachnosterna 
fuse  a.  —  The  insect 
known      as      the      white 
grub  is  the  larval  stage 
of   the    May   beetle.       It 
lives   in  the  land   where 
it  feeds  on  the  roots  of 
plants.     The    mature    in- 
sect    is    a    dark     brown 
beetle,        often       nearly 
black  with  breast  cover- 
ed with  yellowish  hairs. 
The       body     is       three- 
fourths   of   an   inch   long 
and  about  a  half  inch  in 
diameter.     They     fly     at 
night     and      are       well- 
known     insects     of     the 
spring   of   the   year.     As 
beetles  they  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  various  plants. 
The    females    lay    their 
eggs    among    the    grass 
roots  in  a  ball  of  earth. 
These  hatch  in  about  a 
month  and  the  grubs  be- 
gin to  feed  on  the  roots  near  by.     It  requires  two  or  three  years 
for  the  grubs  to  get  their  full  growth  and  they  then  undergo  their 


Figure  41. — May  beetles  at  night. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  97 

changes  and  emerge  in  the  spring  of  the  third  or  fourth  year  as 
the  beetle  described. 

Remedies. — The  grubs  are  eaten  by  birds,  moles  and  skunks. 
They  are  not  apt  to  be  abundant  in  any  but  grass  land  recently 
broken  up.  They  are  exceedingly  hard  to  destroy  on  account  of 
their  remaining  so  long  in  the  soil.  When  young  plants  are  seen 
to  be  wilting  from  the  effects  of  the  grub,  they  may  sometimes 
be  taken  up,  the  grub  removed  and  the  plant  reset.  When  lawns 
or  other  grass  lands  are  badly  affected  they  should  be  broken  up 
and  grown  in  some  cultivated  crop  for  two  years.  The  beetles 
should  be  trapped  when  they  become  very  abundant  as  recom- 
mended for  cut  worm  moths.  Such  animals  as  moles  and  shrews 
should  generally  be  permitted  or  even  encouraged  in  our  lawns 
and  gardens  and  the  little  damage  they  generally  do  suffered 
patiently,  since  they  are  among  our  best  friends  and  destroy  im- 
mense numbers  of  white  grubs  and  other  insects  that  live  in  the 
ground  and  are  difficult  for  us  to  reach.  They  are  seldom 
abundant  except  where  insects  are  numerous. 

Maggots  (Anthomyia 
sp.) — They  are  often  de- 
structive to  the  seed  or 
roots  of  a  variety  of  plants 
including  onions,  cabbage, 
cauliflower  and  similar 
plants;  they  also  attack  the 
seed  of  corn,  peas,  beans 
and  other  vegetables  in 
some  seasons. 

Life  History. — The  mag- 
got here  referred  to  is  the 
larvae  of  a  fly  somewhat 
resembling  the  house  fly, 
but  brown  in  color.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  gen- 
erally on  the  food  plants 
and  hatch  out  in  about  two  weeks  into  maggots,  that  commence 
to  feed  at  once  and  finally  become  one-half  inch  long;    these 


figure   42. — Bean    and   onion    mag- 
gots on  young  bean  plants. 


98  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

change  in  two  weeks  more  to  flies.  This  insect  winters  over  in 
the  pupa  state  in  the  ground. 

Remedies. — When  this  insect  attacks  onions  the  infested 
plant  turns  yellow  and  looks  sickly  and  they  should  be  pulled 
and  destroyed.  The  same  treatment  should  be  given  to  any 
onions  that  may  be  found  infested  at  harvest  time.  When  onion 
land  becomes  badly  infested  with  this  pest  crop  rotation  should 
be  practiced  and  no  onions  should  be  raised  near  it  for  a  year 
or  two.  When  beans,  corn  and  peas  are  affected,  the  seed  should 
be  treated  with  a  very  thin  coating  of  coal  tar  and  afterwards 
rolled  in  plaster  or  other  dust.  The  coal  tar  may  be  applied  as 
follows:  Spread  the  grain  out  in  a  warm  room  on  the  floor 
about  six  inches  deep  and  wet  it  with  warm  water;  sprinkle  on  a 
very  little  warm  coal  tar  (about  one  tablespoonful  to  one-half 
bushel)  until  each  grain  is  coated;  then  roll  it  in  plaster  to 
dry  it  off.  If  this  is  carefully  done  the  grains  will  not  stick 
together  and  may  be  planted  by  seed  planter.  This  treatment 
also  prevents  crows,  gophers  and  squirrels  from  pulling  newly 
planted  corn. 

When  it  attacks  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  similar  plants  it 
may  be  destroyed  by  kerosene  emulsion,  since  the  maggots  work 
on  the  stem  and  roots  of  the  plant  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  such  an  application  would  be  practicable  in  this 
case,  while  in  the  case  of  many  other  crops  such  as  onions, 
beans,  etc.,  it  might  be  quite  out  of  the  question  on  account  of 
the  large  number  of  plants  that  would  have  to  be  treated  to 
make  it  effectual.  In  the  case  of  cabbage  however  it  may  be 
prevented  from  entering  by  inserting  the  plant  through  a  small 
piece  of  tarred  paper,  that  is  allowed  to  remain  flat  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

Cabbage  Flea  Beetle  (Halticus  sp.)— There  are  several  in- 
sects closely  resembling  each  other  and  known  as  cabbage  flea 
beetles  that  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  of  cabbage,  tur- 
nips, radish,  cauliflower,  etc.,  and  various  wild  plants.  They 
are  very  injurious  to  the  very  young  plants  if  allowed  to  have 
their  way,  but  when  the  plants  are  nicely  started  they  do  not 
seem  to  be  seriously  incommoded  by  this  pest.  These  beetles 
are  very  small  and  move  very  quickly.  The  adult  insect  is 
black  or  nearly  so;  some  of  them  lay  their  eggs  near  the  roots 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 


99 


of  the  food  plants,  where  the  larvae  do  some  damage;  in  other 
cases  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  the 
larvae  mine  into  them  and  live  between  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces.  But  their  chief  damage  is  as  beetles,  in  which  form 
they  pass  the  winter.  One  species  of  flea  beetle  is  sometimes 
destructive  to  potato  vines. 


Figure  43. — Different  species  of  flea  beetles  with  their  larvae. 


Remedies. — Since  these  are  biting  insects  they  are  readily 
killed  by  Paris  green  or  London  purple  in  the  usual  propor- 
tions. If  the  plants  are  kept  dusted  with  air  slaked  lime  or 
plaster  they  are  measurably  protected  from  this  insect.  But  the 
latter  applications  are  greatly  improved  by  adding  a  little  poison 
to  them. 

Leaf  Lice  or  Aphides  (Aphis  sp.) — The  various  kinds  of 
leaf  lice,  otherwise  called  aphides,  that  live  on  plants  have  very 
much  the  same  general  habits.  They  are  all  sucking  insects  and 
increase  with  great  rapidity  when  their  food  plants  are  abund- 


100  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

ant.  They  generally  winter  over  in  the  egg  state.  The  summer 
broods  are  often  brought  forth  alive  without  the  intervention 
of  the  egg  state.  Kerosene  emulsion  and  tobacco  water  are 
the  usual  remedies,  but  hot  water  and  pyrethrum  will  also  de- 
stroy them.  Leaf  lice  are  eaten  by  the  larvae  of  lady  bugs  and 
they  are  also  subject  to  attacks  of  parasites.  When  the  lice 
are  coated  with  a  meal-like  covering  that  sheds  water  and  pre- 
vents their  being  wet  by  insectides,  they  should  first  be  sprayed 
with  strong  soap  suds  to  remove  the  mealy  covering  and  then 
the  insecticide  may  be  applied  successfully. 

Cabbage  Lice  or  Aphides  (Aphis  brassicae). — These  are 
light  brown  insects  covered  with  a  floury  substance.  They  at- 
tack turnips,  cauliflower,  rutabagas  and  similar  plants,  as  well 
as  the  cabbage.  They  work  generally  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
leaves  where  they  collect  most  abundantly.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  dry  seasons.  The  remedies  for  them  are  those  given 
under  the  general  head  of  leaf  lice  but  in  addition  to  those  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  burn  or  compost  all  the  old  cabbage  leaves 
and  stumps,  since  the  eggs  winter  over  attached  to  them. 

Sweet  Corn  Moth  or  Tassel  Worm  (Heliophila  unipucta.) — 
This  is  the  boll-worm  of  the  south.  It  eats  into  the  green  grain 
of  the  corn.  But  is  seldom  very  troublesome  at  the  north.  Dr. 
Lugger  thinks  that  it  does  not  winter  over  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern states,  but  that  the  moths  come  from  the  south  each  year. 
The  only  remedy  is  hand  picking.  It  is  doubtful  if  they  will 
ever  become  very  injurious  in  the  northern  states,  since  they  do 
not  begin  their  work  there  until  late  in  the  season. 

Parsley  Worm  or  Celery  Caterpillar  (Papilio  asterias.) — This 
worm  eats  the  foliage  of  celery,  carrot,  parsley  and  allied  plants, 
but  is  not  very  often  injurious.  The  mature  insect  is  a  beautiful 
large  black  butterfly  having  yellow  and  blue  spots  on  its  wings. 
The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  foliage  and  hatch  into  small  caterpil- 
lars less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  which  when  full  grown 
are  one  and  a  half  inches  long.  It  has  bright  yellow  mark- 
ings. The  remedy  is  to  hand  pick  the  worms,  which  are  seldom 
abundant 


INJURIOUS   INSECTS.  101 

Chinch    Bugs    (Blissus   leucopteris.) — The   chinch  bug    does 
tt  trouble  any  of  our  garden  products  except  corn,  but  is  some- 
times   very   injurious   to   this    vegetable   and 
may  kill  it  in  a  very  few  days  if  neglected. 
This   is   a  sucking  insect  that  winters   over 
in  the  adult  state  under  leaves  and  in  dry  pro- 
tected places  generally.       When    full    grown 
it  is  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  long  with 
white  upper  wings  which  have  two  well  de- 
fined black  spots  on  them.       When  crushed 
they   have    an    offensive    bed-bug-like    odor, 
This  insect  is  not  affected  T>y  cold  weather, 
but  succumbs  quickly  to  moisture.       The  fe- 
male deposits  her  eggs  near  the  ground  upon 
the  stem  or  roots  of  wheat,  oats,  grasses,  etc. 
Remedies. — The    burning    of    rubbish    accumulations    along 
headlands,  fences,  etc.,  in  the  winter  or  early  spring  in  infested 
localities    will    destroy    many.     They    always    infest    the    small 
grains  before  they  do  corn. 

While  these  insects  have  wings  they  use  them  but  little  in 
their  migration  in  summer,  but  they  travel  on  foot  and  often  m 
great  numbers.  Taking  advantage  of  these  peculiarities  they 
may  be  kept  from  corn  fields  by  plowing  deep  furrows  in  their 
way,  which  should  be  turned  back  as  soon  as  filled  with  bugs 
and  new  furrows  made.  Fences  of  boards  six  inches  high  with 
the  upper  edge  kept  covered  with  tar  will  keep  them  out,  but 
holes  in  the  ground  should  be  made  at  intervals  along  the  line 
of  the  boards,  which  when  full  of  bugs  should  t>e  filled  in  with 
earth,  and  new  holes  made.  A  dusty  headland  or  road  is  very 
difficult  for  them  to  go  through.  If  they  finally  reach  the  corn 
they  will  readily  succumb  to  kerosene  emulsion.  Much  is  being 
done  to  rid  the  grain  fields  of  this  pest  by  infecting  the  bugs 
with  disease.  This  works  most  rapidly  in  moist  weather,  but 
other  remedies  should  not  be  put  aside  for  this  one. 

Bean  and  Pea  Weevil  (Bruchus  sp.) — The  insects  known 
as  weevil  are  quite  common  in  some  sections.  They  work  in 
the  seed  of  beans  and  peas.  The  adult  insects  are  small  beetles 
which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  flowers  where  they  soon  hatch  and 


J 02  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  young  larvae  eat  their  way  into  the  immature  seeds.  The 
hole  by  which  the  larva  enters  the  seed  grows  completely  over, 
so  that  the  seed  appears  unimpaired  externally.  In  the  seed  the 
larva  does  not  touch  the  germ,  though  it  may  eat  up  a  large 
part  of  the  starch.  The  larva  undergoes  its  changes  in  the 
seed,  and  when  these  have  been  completed  the  beetles  emerge 
through  quite  large  holes  in  the  shell  of  the  seed.  While  seed 
that  is  infested  may  germinate  it  forms  only  weak  plants  that 
are  very  sure  to  fail  to  mature  a  full  crop.  Similar  insects  also 
attack  corn.  There  is  another  species  that  breeds  in  stored 
grain,  peas  and  beans,  etc.,  but  it  is  not  common  here  as  yet. 

Remedies. — These  insects  are  generally  somewhat  local  In 
range.  Whenever  any  locality  is  infested  the  date  of  planting 
should  be  delayed  two  weeks,  by  which  means  the  beetle  fail  to 
find  the  crop  ready  when  they  are  ready  to  lay  their  eggs.  This 
trouble  generally  comes  from  sowing  infested  seeds.  These 
may  be  separated  from  the  good  seed  by  throwing  them  into 
water,  when  the  good  will  sink,  but  those  infested  will  float. 
Another  method  is  to  treat  the  seed  with  carbon  bisulphide  as 
recommended  under  that  head.  If  the  seed  is  kept  over  two 
years  the  beetles  will  have  come  out.  The  species  that  breeds 
in  the  grain  is  most  easily  destroyed  and  kept  out  of  the  seed 
by  using  bisulphide  of  carbon  as  recommended. 

Squash  Vine  Borer  (Aegeria  cucurbitae.) — The  squash  vine 
borer  is  the  larva  of  a  moth.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stems 
of  the  young  plants  near  the  roots  of  cucumber,  squash  and  melon 
vines.  The  larvae  on  hatching  burrow  into  the  stem  and  follow 
along  the  center,  which  causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and  finally  to 
die.  The  full  grown  borer  measures  about  one  inch  in  length 
and  has  a  whitish  body  with  a  brown  head.  The  borers  leave 
the  stem  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  winter  over  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground  in  cocoons  composed  partly  of  earth. 
The  moth  emerges  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  not  yet  found  in  this  section  but 
is  common  in  the  eastern  states,  and  where  it  is  found  all 
withered  or  dead  vines  should  be  destroyed.  When  vines  have 
only  commenced  to  wilt  the  borer  may  often  be  cut  out  and 
the  vine  recover.     It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  cover  several  of  the 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS.  103 

lower  joints  of  squash  vines  with  earth  to  encourage  the  for- 
mation of  extra  sets  of  roots  at  these  places. 

The  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis.) — This  insect  makes  its 
appearance  the  latter  part  of  June  or  the  first  of  July.  The 
females  deposit  their  brownish-yellow  eggs  in  small  patches  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  These  hatch  into  nymphs  that  suck 
the  sap  of  the  leaves,  often  seriously  injuring  them.  The  full 
grown  bug  is  a  little  over  one-half  inch  long  and  a  rusty  black 
color  above  and  yellowish  beneath.  They  emit  a  disagreeable 
odor  when  touched.  They  winter  over  in  rubbish,  under  boards 
or  anywhere  they  can  find  protection. 

Remedies. — Hand  picking  in  the  morning  and  evening  at 
which  times  the  bugs  are  somewhat  torpid,  is  the  most  practical 
remedy.  Boards  laid  among  the  plants  at  night  will  be  found  to 
have  many  bugs  under  them  in  the  morning,  and  these  may  be 
crushed  or  otherwise  destroyed.  Large  numbers  may  be  killed 
in  this  way. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

GARDEN  VEGETABLES. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES. 

Vegetables  may  be  classified  in  many  ways,  but  perhaps  the 
most  helpful  way  is  to  divide  them  according  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  grow  best  into  (1)  warm  and  (2)  cold  climate 
vegetables: 

(1)  Among  warm  climate  vegetables  (often  called  tropical) 
we  have  tomato,  corn,  beans,  pepper,  egg  plant,  cucumber,  musk 
melon,  watermelon,  squash,  pumpkin,  and  okra.  These  plants  all 
require  hot  weather  for  their  growth,  are  severely  injured  by  first 
hard  frost  and  should  not  be  planted  in  open  ground  until  warm 
weather  is  assured.  They  are  generally  at  their  best  on  a  warm 
southern  exposure  and  in  soil  having  a  little  sand  in  its  com- 
position. These  plants  are  all  natives  of  hot  climates  and  will 
not  survive  long  in  cold  climates  when  left  to  themselves. 

(2)  Among  cold  climate  vegetables,  we  have  practically  all 
those  commonly  grown  not  mentioned  above  (1)  such  as  aspara- 
gus, rhubarb,  horseradish,  safsify  and  parsnip,  which  stand  our 
severest  winters  without  injury,  and  those  that  are  less  hardy, 
such  as  onions,  leeks,  peas,  beets,  spinach,  cabbage,  Brussels 
sprouts,  cauliflower,  cress,  kale,  kohl  rabi,  radishes,  rutabaga, 
turnip,  carrot,  parsley,  celery,  celariac,  lettuce,  endive,  potato, 
strawberry,  tomato,  and  others.  These  all  grow  well  at  a  cool 
temperature  and  most  of  them  will  stand  some  frost  without 
injury.  They  may  be  divided  into  those  with  tops  that  are  frost 
hardy  or  frost  tender  as  follows: 

By  frost  tender  is  meant  those  whose  tops  are  injured  by 
a  light  hard  frost  such  as  potato,  asparagus,  strawberry,  tomato, 
and  of  course  all  the  tropical  plants  mentioned  above  (1). 
Some  plants  like  asparagus  and  our  native  oak  tree  may  have 
foliage  that  is  very  susceptible  to  frost  but  are  hardy  in  winter. 


MUSHROOM.  105 

By  frost  hardy  is  meant  those  having  foliage  that  is  not 
injured  by  light  frost,  such  as  horseradish,  rhubarb,  onions,  leeks, 
garlic,  peas,  spinach,  beets,  cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts,  cauli- 
flower, cress,  kale,  kohl  rabi,  radishes,  rutabaga,  turnip,  carrot, 
parsley,  celery,  lettuce,  endive  and  most  of  the  garden  herbs. 

Botanical  Classification. — All  plants  may  be  divided  into  fam- 
ilies, each  of  which  has  its  distinguishing  features.  Our  garden 
vegetables  and  herbs  belong  to  at  least  seventeen  families.  The 
special  features  of  each  of  which  will  be  found  with  the  cultural 
directions  for  the  plants  grouped  under  them,  but  for  convenience 
a  list  is  here  given  of  all  the  vegetables  referred  to  herein,  ar- 
ranged under  their  proper  family  names: 

The  Fungi  Group  or  Family,  mushrooms  or  toadstools. 

The  Grass  Family  (Gramineae),  corn. 

The  Lily  Family  (Liliaceae)  asparagus,  onion,  leeks,  garlic. 

The  Buckwheat  Family  (Polygonaceae),  rhubarb  or  pie 
plant. 

The  Goosefoot  Family  (Chenopodiaceae),  beet,  Swiss  chard 
and  spinach. 

The  Cabbage  Family  (Cruciferae),  cabbage,  cauliflower,  rad- 
ishes, rutabaga,  turnip,  Brussels  sprouts,  kale,  kohl  rabi,  horse 
radish,  cress  and  watercress. 

The  Clover  Family  (Leguminosae),  beans  and  peas. 

The  Mallow  Family  (Malvaceae),  okra. 

The  Parsnip  Family  (Umbelliferae),  parsnip,  parsley,  carrot, 
celery,  calariac,  caraway,  dill,  anise,  coriander  and  fennel. 

The  Morning  Glory  Family   (Convolvulaceae),  sweet  potato. 

The  Mint  Family  (Labiatae),  sweet  basil,  lavender,  balm, 
spearmint,  peppermint,  summer  savory,  winter  savory,  sweet 
marjoram,  thyme,  sage  and  catnip. 

The  Potato  Family  (Solanaceae),  tomato,  potato,  egg  plant, 
peppers  and  strawberry  tomato. 

The  Martynia  Family  (Martiniaceae),  Martynia. 

The  Gourd  Family  (Cucurbitaceae),  cucumber,  squash, 
muskmelons,  watermelons,  pumpkin  and  gourd. 

The  Sunflower  Family  (Compositae),  lettuce,  salsify,  endive 
and  dandelion. 


108  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

mushrooms  that  are  edible,  but  since  there  are  also  several 
poisonous  kinds  one  should  be  careful  about  trying  unknown 
sorts.  Among  the  edible  kinds  are  the  several  sorts  known  as 
puff  balls  (Lycoperdon).  When  these  first  appear,  they  are 
white  balls  of  a  fleshy  texture  with  little  or  no  stalks;  as  they 
ripen  the  flesh  turns  gradually  to  a  dark  brown,  and  finally 
the  spores  are  ejected  by  the  ball  being  crushed  or  naturally 
breaking  open.  They  are  not  fit  to  eat  after  the  flesh  begins 
to  turn  brown.  The  smaller  sorts  are  most  common,  but  the 
giant  puff  ball  is  occasionally  met  with  and  is  often  ten  or  more 
inches  in  diameter. 

Another  common  native  mushroom  is  shown   in  figure  45. 


Figure  45.— Native  Mushrooms.  On  the  left  is  shown  the  giant  puff 
ball  (Lycoperdon  giganteum);  on  the  right  Maned  Agaric  (Coprin- 
us  comatus),   in  various  stages  of  maturity. 

It  has  a  stem  several  inches  high,  but  the  top  does  not  expand 
and  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  all  the  mushroom  tribe  when 
young.  It  is  called  the  Maned  Agaric  (Coprinus  comatus.)  It 
grows  in  waste  and  grassy  places,  lawns  and  meadows.  The 
gills  (layers  on  the  under  part  of  the  head)  are  at  first  white 
or  pink,  melting  into  an  inky  fluid-like  substance  when  more 
mature. 

Little  attention  has  ever  been  paid  in  this  country  to 
growing  our  native  species.  They  could  undoubtedly  be  propa- 
gated by  digging  up  some  of  the  earth  where  they  grow  abun- 
dantly and  mixing  it  with  the  soil  where  it  is  desired  to  grow 


THE  GRASS  FAMILY.  109 

them.  The  kinds  mentioned  mature  in  the  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer and  are  especially  abundant  in  old  pastures  or  other  places 
containing  much  decaying  organic  matter  and  during  moist 
weather.  If  an  attempt  was  made  to  grow  them,  it  would  prob- 
ably be  necessary  to  keep  the  ground  moist  all  summer  to  se- 
cure the  best  results. 

THE  GRASS  FAMILY.  (Oder  Gramineae.) 
The  Grass  Family  has  many  well  known  general  character- 
istics. It  includes  many  species  and  produces  the  greater  part 
of  the  food  of  the  human  race  either  directly  as  seed  or  indirect- 
ly as  meat  and  yet  only  corn  is  ordinarily  grown  in  vegetable 
gardens.  Among  the  most  important  food  plants  belonging  here 
are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  rice,  corn,  sorghum  and  sugar  cane. 
The  wild  rice  grows  in  great  abundance  in  some  portions  of  this 
state  and  is  an  important  article  of  food  among  the  Indians. 

CORN.  (Zea  mays.) 
Native  of  America. — Annual.  The  male  flowers  are  in  the 
tassel  and  the  female  flower  on  the  cob.  While  cross-fertiliza- 
tion is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  the  production  of  seed,  it 
is  necessary  for  a  good  crop.  The  varieties  of  corn  may  be 
easily  grouped  under  four  classes:  (1)  Sweet  corn,  which  in- 
cludes varieties  with  soft  and  generally  much  wrinkled  kernels, 
that  are  especially  desirable  for  use  in  a  green  state  on  ac- 
count of  their  being  sweeter  and  more  delicate  in  flavor  than 
other  kinds.  (2)  Flint  corn,  which  includes  field  varieties  hav- 
ing a  very  hard,  smooth  grain.  (3)  Dent  corn,  which  includes 
field  varieties  rather  softer  in  texture  than  the  flint  corn,  each 
kernel  having  a  depression  in  the  end  of  it.  (4)  Pop  corn,  which 
has  a  kernel  of  flinty  hardness  and  is  used  almost  entirely  for 
popping  purposes.  These  classes  will  all  cross  together.  But 
there  are  numerous  verieties  in  each  of  the  classes  varying  from 
one  another  in  height  of  stalk,  size  and  color  of  the  ear  and  ker- 
nel, time  of  ripening  and  various  minor  particulars.  The  color 
of  the  grains  may  be  white,  yellow,  red  or  purple,  but  white  and 
yellow  are  most  common.  Corn  is  quickly  improved  by  judi- 
cious selection,  and  new  varieties  are  frequently  originated  in 
this  way. 


110  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Cultivation. — For  early  use,  the  seed  should  be  sown  as  soon 
as  the  ground  begins  to  get  warm  in  the  spring.     Very  early 
planting  is  not  desirable  for  the  main  crop,  since  in  cold,  wet 
weather  the  seed  is  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground,  or  the  plants 
may  be  frozen  on  coming  up.     It  may,  however,  be  desirable  to 
plant   some  of  the   earliest  kinds   as   soon   as   the   weather   is 
warm,  and,  selecting  the  most  favorable  location,  run  the  risk 
of  failure,  as  the  profits  are  correspondingly  large  if  the  crop 
is  very  early,  while  the  expense  of  planting  is  a  small  matter. 
The  main  crop  of  corn  should  be  planted   from  the  middle  to 
the  last  of  May.     The   land   can  hardly   be   too   ric'     for   corn, 
and   it   should   be   in   a  finely   pulverized    condition.     The    seed 
may  be  planted  in  rows  at  about  nine-inch  intervals,  with  rows 
three  to  four  feet  apart,   or  in  hills  three  to   four   feet   apart 
each  way,  according  to  the  growth  of  the  plants  and  method  of 
cultivation  to  be  followed.    It  should  be  covered  above  two  inches. 
If  grown  in  hills,  three  or  four  plants  should  be  left  in  a  place, 
which  means  planting  about  six  seeds  to  the  hill.     If  planted  in 
hills,  they  may  be  cultivated  both  ways,  which  is  an  advantage 
over  planting  in  rows.     In  rows,  however,  the   plants   develop 
rather  better  than  in  hills,  and  it  is  the  method  preferred   by 
many  good  growers,  though  field  corn  is  generally   planted   in 
hills.     Corn    should    be    cultivated    shallow    and    never    deep 
enough  to  cut  the  roots;   until  it  is  six  inches  high  it  may  be 
harrowed  with  a  slant  tooth  harrow.     In  order  to  have  a  long 
season  of  this  vegetable  in  its  best  condition  for  table  use,  plant- 
ings of  the  very  early  and  some  good  second  early  kind  should  be 
made  at  the  same  time;  and  then  plantings  of  the  second  early 
kinds  should  be  made  once  in  two    weeks,  thereafter  up  to  about 
the  twentieth  of  June.     If  planted  later  than  this  there  is  much 
doubt  about  its  getting  laige  enough  for  table  use  before  the 
autumn  frosts  set  in.     The  very  early  kinds,  however,  may  be 
planted  in  this  section  as  late  as  the  fourth  of  July,  with  good 
prospects  of  their  becoming  of  marketable  size;    but  the  very 
early  varieties  are  small  in  size  and  not  as  sweet  and  desirable 
as  the  larger  second  early  or  late  kinds,  and  a  few  varieties  re- 
quire the  whole  season  in  which  to  obtain  table  size.     If  properly 
planted,  sweet  corn  may  be  had  in  a  young  and  tender  condition 
from  the  middle  of  July  until  the  cold  weather  of  autumn. 


CORN.  Ill 

Marketing. — There  is  a  large  demand  for  green  corn  in 
every  city  and  village.  It  is  marketable  as  soon  as  the  kernels 
are  well  formed  and  is  generally  sold  in  the  husk,  by  the  doz- 
en or  by  the  barrel.  There  are  several  canning  factories  in  this 
section  and  many  in  other  parts  of  the  country  that  make  a 
specialty  of  canning  sweet  corn.  Grown  for  this  purpose  or 
for  evaporating,  it  is  a  farm  crop  that  may  be  made  to  pay 
very  well  in  some  locations,  and  extensive  tracts  of  land  are  de- 
voted to  raising  it.  Where  the  crop  is  marketed  at  canning 
factories  the  fodder  is  left  on  the  farm  and  is  In  admirable 
condition  for  feeding.  The  ears  are  best  for  table  use  when 
first  picked  and  quickly  lose  in  quality  after  gathering;  if  they 
heat  in  piles  or  packages  they  are  of  very  inferior  quality. 

Varieties. — For  very  early  use  the  White  or  Red  Cob  Cory  is 
a  general  favorite  and  is  probably  earlier  than  any  other  kind. 


Figure  46.— Early  Cory  Corn. 

It  will  often  mature  in  eight  weeks.  Early  Minnesota  is  a  little 
later,  but  a  much  better  table  variety.  For  second  early  and 
mid-season  use,  Perry's  Hybrid,  Moore's  Concord,  Potter's  Excel- 
sior and  Landreth's  Sugar  are  excellent.  Perhaps  the  Perry's 
Hybrid  is  the  most  popular  second  early  market  sort. 

For  late  use,  requiring  a  long  season,  Stowell's  Evergreen, 
and  Egyptian  Mammoth  are  desirable.  These  kinds  have  large 
ears  and  are  particularly  desirable  for  canning  purposes.  The 
Country  Gentleman  is  a  peculiar  late  variety  of  great  merit.     The 


112  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

kernels  are  narrow  and  long  and  not  arranged  in  rows  but  irreg- 
ularly on  the  ear.  It  has,  perhaps,  the  smallest  cob  of  any 
known  variety.     While  it  requires  a  long   season   to   get  it  to 


Figure  47.— Late  Sweet  Corn. 


an  edible  size,  it  is  of  fine  quality  and  very  desirable  for  home 
use. 

Pop  corn  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as  sweet  corn.  For 
home  use,  a  very  little  will  suffice;  in  some  sections,  however* 
it  is  raised  in  large  quantities.  It  is  usually  marketed  on  the 
cob  and  is  seldom  salable  until  at  least  one  year  old.  Among 
the     best  varieties  are  White  Rice  and  Golden  Pop. 

Varieties  of  corn  run  out  and  change  very  quickly,  and  there 
is  often  much  difference  in  the  strains  of  different  kinds.  Those 
that  it  is  desired  to  keep  pure  should  be  grown  at  least  1000 
feet  away  from  other  kinds  that  flower  at  the  same  period.  Va- 
rieties of  corn  of  every  description,  including  all  those  belonging 
to  the  sweet,  dent,  flint  and  pop  corn  classes,  will  mix  together 
when  near  by  each  other. 

Curing  Seed  of  Sweet  Corn. — The  seed  of  the  late  varieties 


CORN.  113 

of  sweet  corn  is  difficult  to  cure  thoroughly  and  is  very  liable  to 
mould  during  drying  process,  unless  it  is  given  plenty  of  light 
and  air.  A  good  way  is  to  tie  the  ears  in  small  bunches  and 
suspend  in  a  dry,  hot,  airy  room  after  it  has  ripened  as  nearly  as 
may  be  on  the  stalk. 

Preserving  Green  Corn. — Green  corn  is  often  preserved  in  a 
small  way  by  cooking  and  then  cutting  it  from  the  cob  and 
drying  it  in  the  sun,  oven  or  evaporator.  It  is  also  preserved 
in  brine  by  first  cooking  it  and  then  treating  the  same  as 
recommended  for  cucumber  pickles.  It  may  also  be  cut  from 
the  cob  after  cooking  and  packed  in  a  vessel  in  layers  alter- 
nating with  salt,  using  about  seven  pounds  of  salt  to  a  bushel 
of  kernels. 

Mrs.  T.  T.  Batchelor  has  been  very  successful  in  canning  corn 
for  winter  use  as  follows: 

When  the  Stowell's  Evergreen  corn  is  ripe,  the  fresh  pulled 
ears  are  slightly  shaved  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  to  take  off  the 
ends  of  the  kernels.  The  corn  is  then  scraped  from  the  cob  and 
packed  solidly  in  Mason  jars.  The  covers  are  put  on,  leaving 
them  only  a  little  lose  so  water  will  not  get  in.  The  cans  are 
set  in  a  boiler,  covered  with  cold  water,  which  is  brought  to 
the  boiling  point  and  allowed  to  boil  for  two  hours.  The  tops 
are  then  screwed  tight,  and  they  are  allowed  to  boil  for  two 
hours  longer.  No  water  is  used  with  the  corn,  and  no  salt.  They 
have  been  very  successfull  in  keeping  it  when  put  up  in  this  way. 

Cutting  off  the  Tassels. — It  has  been  recommended  to  cut  off 
half  of  the  tassels  from  the  young  corn,  on  the  ground  that 
one-half  the  tassels  would  produce  all  the  pollen  needed  by  all 
the  kernels.  While  some  experiments  have  shown  this  to  be 
true,  many  other  experiments  show  there  is  little  if  anything  to 
be  gained  by  the  practice. 

Insects. — Corn  is  quite  free  from  serious  injury,  either  from 
insects  or  diseases.  The  most  injurious  insects  are  the  cut 
worms  and  boll  worms,  for  discussion  of  which  see  chapter  on  in- 
sects. 

Smut  (Ustilago  maydis)  is  almost  the  only  disease  seriously 


114 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


injurious  to  corn.     It  is  a  fungous  disease  that  works  in  almost 

any  part  of  the  plant, 
causing  swellings  which 
contain  black  spores. 
When  ripe,  the  swellings 
burst  and  the  spores  are 
scattered  to  continue  the 
disease  another  year. 
There  can  be  no  question 
but  that  gathering  and 
destroying  the  bunches 
of  spores  by  burning  or 
burying  them  deeply  in 
the  ground  would  result 

Figure  48.-Corn  Snut.     (Ustilago  Maydis.)  in    greatly    lessening    the 

loss  from  this  cause.  It  is,  however,  such  an  expensive  remedy 
as  to  seem  almost  impracticable.  Some  experiments  seem  to 
show  that  soaking  the  seed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  coppei 
may  assist  in  preventing  this  trouble  in  corn  as  well  as  smut  in 
wheat,  but  other  experiments  apparently  prove  the  contrary, 
and  it  may  be  taken  as  a  doubtful  matter  at  the  best.  Prac 
tically,  then,  we  know  of  no  sure  remedy  for  smut  in  corn. 


.   ... 

~~** 

ii  f 

li^> 

f 

/ 

'SyF^*^ 

'  * 

*m^y    { 

\,  . 

7 

^C v 

THE  LILY  FAMILY.     (Order  Liliaceae.) 

The  Lily  Family  is  made  up  of  plants  that  with  few  excep- 
tions have  parallel  veined  leaves.  The  flowers  are  regular 
and  symmetrical  with  perianth  of  six  parts,  six  stamens  and  a 
superior  three-celled  ovary.  Fruit  a  many-seeded  dry  pcd  or 
soft  berry.  Besides  the  asparagus,  onion,  garlic  and  leek,  whose 
cultural  directions  are  here  given,  there  occurs  in  this  family  the 
tiger  and  other  lilies,  the  hyacinth,  tulip,  Spanish  bayonet,  cen- 
tury plant,  smilax,  lily  of  the  valley  and  many  other  familiar 
flowering  plants. 


ASPARAGUS.     (Asparagus  officinalis.) 

Native   of    Europe. — Perennial. — The   asparagus   is   an   her- 
baceous plant,  growing  to  the  height  of  about  four  feet.     The 


IKI^ 

■eH 

v  flj 

J 

■Bftv'Sj 

"mI 

■lt# 

j*flj 

ASPARAGUS.  115 

flowers    are    small    and    generally    yellow.     They    are    perfect 

but  in  many  plants 
the  pistils  are  abor- 
tive, so  that  only 
about  half  of  the 
plants  produce  seed. 
The  seed  is  produced 
in  spherical  berries, 
that  are  vermilion 
in  color  when  they 
ripen  in  the  autumn. 
The  seeds  are  black 
and  triangular,  num- 
bering about  1400  to 
the  ounce.  Asparagus 
is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  garden  veg- 
etables.    It    is     per- 

Figure  49.— Asparagus  plant  full  grown.  fectly     hardy,     never 

fails  to  produce  a  crop,  is  one  of  the  first  vegetables  to  be 
obtained  in  the  spring  and  may  be  used  until  the  middle  of 
June.  Perhaps,  no  other  vegetable  is  more  highly  esteemed 
by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  its  use.  It  may  be  grown 
with  success  in  any  good  corn  land,  but  is  worthy  of  the  best 
of  care,  as  it  responds  readily  to  rich  manure  and  high  culti- 
vation. On  sandy  loam  the  crop  is  much  earlier  than  on  clay 
soils;  wet  land  is  not  suited  to  it. 

Propagation. — It  grows  readily  from  seed,  and  one  ounce  of 
seed  is  sufficient  for  about  fifty  feet  of  drill  and  should  pro- 
duce with  good  care  about  four  hundred  plants,  though  no 
particular  care  is  necessary  for  success.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  good  soil  early  in  the  spring,  in  drills  which  may 
be  as  close  as  sixteen  inches,  and  it  should  be  covered  about 
one  inch  deep.  As  asparagus  seed  starts  slowly,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  sow  radishes  or  other  early  appearing  crops  with  it, 
so  that  tne  rows  may  be  seen  and  weeding  commenced  early. 
This  practice  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  aspara- 
gus as  the  radishes  will  be  ready  for  use  and  out  of  the  way 
before    it   needs    much    room.     The    seedling   asparagus   'roots 


116  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

will  be  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  permanent 
plantation  when  one  year  old,  and  it  is  the  best  plan  to  do  so. 
but  they  may  be  allowed  to  stand  two  years  in  the  seed  bed. 
The  young  seedling  plants  which  often  come  up  in  or  neai 
asparagus  beds  may  be  transplanted  in  July  of  the  first  year 
directly  to  the  permanent  bed  and  will  do  very  well  if  handled 
carefuiiy.  At  whatever  age  they  are  transplanted  the  plants 
should  be  dug  and  set  out  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  as 
they  are  likely  to  fail  when  removed   in  the   autumn.     Aspar- 


-  i    ~j£*m 


Figure  50.— Asparagus  root  with  edible  shoots. 

agus  may  be  increased  by  dividing  the  crowns,  but  this  is  an 
expensive  process,  and  plants  so  grown  have  no  peculiar  merit 
over  those  from  seed.  By  buying  the  plants  instead  of  sow- 
ing the  seed  to  start  with,  one  or  two  years'  time  may  be  saved, 
and  frequently  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  the  plants  than  to  raise 
them.     It  is   said   that  plants   that  do   not   bear   seed   produce 


ASPARAGUS.  117 

more  sprouts  than  those  that  do.  Such  plants  may  be  increased 
by   divisions. 

Planting. — While  asparagus  should  always  be  moved  in 
the  spring,  it  is  not  necessary  to  move  it  very  early,  though 
it  is  better  to  do  so;  but  it  may  be  successfully  transplanted  as 
late  as  the  first  of  June.  Any  long  sprouts  that  may  have 
started  should  be  broken  off  when  the  plants  are  set  out. 
The  land  for  planting  should  be  heavily  manured,  deeply 
plowed  and  finely  pulverized,  and  it  is  important  to  do  this 
work  well,  as  asparagus  beds  well  made  should  last  at  least 
twenty  years.  The  opinions  of  different  growers  as  to  dis- 
tance between  plants  vary  much.  It  has  been  advocated  to 
set  the  plants  four  feet  apart  each  way  and  if  the  soil  is  re- 
markably fertile  this  distance  will  not  be  too  great;  if  the 
land  is  not  very  rich,  it  is  customary  to  put  the  plants  at  in- 
tervals  of  three  feet  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  If  a  bed  for  a 
family  garden  is  desired  where  space  is  limited,  it  is  probably 
best  to  set  the  plants  three  by  three  feet  apart.  About  100 
plants  will  produce  all  the  sprouts  needed  in  an  ordinary  home 
garden. 

Depth  to  Plant. — For  ordinary  purposes  asparagus  roots 
should  be  planted  about  six  inches  deep;  the  deeper  they  are 
planted  the  later  they  will  be  about  starting  in  the  spring;  if 
planted  much  lc-?s  than  six  inches  deep,  the  roots  often  push  up 
to  the  surface  and  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  plants  should 
not  be  covered  to  the  full  depth  of  six  inches  at  once  or  the 
shoots  may  never  be  able  to  push  up  to  the  surface.  The  fur 
rows  should  be  made  with  a  plow  to  the  proper  depth,  the  plains 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  covered  about  three 
inches  to  begin  with,  and  the  furrows  filled  in  by  after  cultiva- 
tion as  the  tops  grow.  By  the  middle  of  the  summer  the  fur- 
rows should  be  level  full. 

Cultivation  during  the  first  year  can  be  done  almost  entirely 
with  a  horse,  though  some  hand  hoeing  will  be  necessary  be- 
tween the  plants.  By  autumn  of  the  first  year,  the  tops  should 
be  three  feet  high.  As  soon  as  they  are  dead  they  should  be 
cut  off  close  to  the  ground  with  a  heavy,  sharp  hoe  or  similar 
tool,  and  then  the  land  should  have  a  light  plowing  or  be  worked 


118  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

up  with  a  harrow  to  a  depth  of  four  inches.  No  care  need  to  be 
taken  about  the  plants  when  cultivating  at  this  season  of  the 
year,  but  the  whole  surface  may  be  cultivated  or  plowed  three 
inches  deep  as  though  no  crop  was  in  the  land.  In  the  spring 
the  land  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  as  it  will  work  well  in 
order  that  it  may  warm  up  quickly.  There  will  be  no  crop  to  cut 
until  the  spring  of  the  third  year;  a  very  little,  however,  may 
be  safely  cut  the  second  year  after  planting  if  the  plants  do  well. 
The  cultivation  in  subsequent  years  should  be  very  much  the 
same  as  that  given  above,  but  in  addition,  when  the  crop  has 
been  all  harvested  and  cutting  is  to  cease,  which  will  be  about 
the  middle  or  last  of  June  in  the  northern  states,  the  whole 
bed  should  have  a  thorough  cultivation  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches  without  regard  to  the  rows,  and  if  manure  is  to  be  used 
it  should  be  put  on  at  this  time.  Under  this  method  of  treat- 
ment it  is  unnecessary  to  do  much  hand  weeding,  and  it  is 
very  easy  to  keep  the  soil  in  the  best  condition  by  horse  power. 
After  the  thorough  cultivation  in  June,  all  the  sprouts  that  come 
up  from  the  roots  should  be  permitted  to  grow  until  autumn, 
by  that  time  they  should  be  about  five  feet  high  if  in  good 
soil  and  will  have  ripe  seed.  It  is  necessary  to  allow  the  top 
to  grow  to  this  extent  in  order  that  plant  food  may  be  stored  up 
in  the  roots.  Very  late  cutting  weakens  the  growth  of  the 
plants. 

Cutting. — When  the  crop  is  grown  for  marketing,  it  Is  not 
desirable  to  cut  the  shoots  until  the  third  season  after  plant- 
ing the  roots;  however,  in  the  case  of  small  beds  in  the  gar- 
den where  the  planter  is  very  anxious  to  test  the  fruit  of  his 
labor,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  no  harm  is  liable  to  come 
from  a  very  slight  cutting  the  second  season.  The  sprouts 
should  be  cut  as  they  appear  in  the  spring,  and  all  of  them 
should  be  cut  when  of  the  proper  size,  although  they  may  not 
be  needed  at  that  time.  If  permitted  to  grow  they  interfere 
with  subsequent  cutting  and  prevent  the  growth  of  new  sprouts. 
They  will  also  be  in  the  way  of  cultivation  later  in  the  season. 
The  sprouts  are  generally  cut  off  about  two  inches  below  the 
surface  when  they  are  about  six  inches  high  above  the  ground, 
and  in  this  case  all  but  two  inches  of  the  asparagus  is  green, 


ASPARAGUS.  119 

which  is  the  right  condition  for  most  markets.  Some  people 
prefer  to  have  white  sprouts  and  in  such  cases  they  should  be  cut 
four  or  five  inches  deep  in  the  ground.  In  case  white  sprouts 
are  wanted  it  is  also  a  good  plan  to  mound  up  around  the  hills 
or  to  cover  them  with  fine  manure  to  keep  the  sunlight  away 
from  the  shoots.  The  time  between  the  cuttings  is  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  weather.  In  early  spring,  if  the  weather  is  rather 
cold,  the  plants  may  not  give  more  than  one  cutting  per  week, 
but  later  in  the  season  a  good  cutting  will  perhaps  be  secured 
once  in  two  days.  A  severe  frost  will  kill  all  the  shoots  above 
ground  but  will  not  injure  subsequent  cuttings.     Asparagus   is 


Fi  ure  51.— Method  of  bunching-  asparagus,  showing-    loose  sprouts,  boxes  for 
tying  up  in  aud  completed  bunches. 

marketed  by  tying  the  sprouts  in  bunches,  and  the  size  of  the 
bunches  depends  much  upon  the  market  and,  in  some  places, 
on  the  season  and  whether  the  supply  is  plentiful  or  not.  It 
is  very  desirable,  however,  to  have  all  the  bunches  of  one  size, 
It  is  preferable  to  tie  the  sprouts  when  they  are  just  a  little 
wilted  and  then  set  them  in  water  to  swell  and  make  the  bands 
tight.  The  shoots  will  easily  keep  for  a  week  if  kept  cold  and 
moist.  It  is  customary  to  stand  the  bunches  on  end  in  water  in 
keeping  them. 

Manuring. — If  manure  is  applied  to  the  asparagus  bed  in 
autumn  or  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring, 
it  prevents  the  frost  from  coming  out  of  the  ground  and  sg 
keeps  back  the  growth  unless  the  manure  applied  is  very  fine 


120  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

and  is  at  once  cultivated  into  the  soil.  Sometimes  such  treat' 
ment  will  keep  the  sprouts  from  starting  for  a  week  or  more 
at  a  season  when  it  is  most  relished  and  the  market  price  is 
the  highest.  On  this  account  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  manure 
asparagus  in  June  at  the  close  of  the  cutting  season,  as  it  can 
then  be  thoroughly  cultivated  into  the  soil  and  does  not  inter- 
fere in  any  way  with  the  growth  of  the  plants  in  the  spring. 
Asparagus  is  a  rank  feeder  and  needs  lots  of  manure  for  the 
best  results.  Salt  may  be  applied  to  asparagus  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  kill  all  the  weeds  without  injuring  the  plants  and 
yet  careful  experiments  seem  to  show  that  salt  is  of  no  special 
value  as  a  manure  for  this  crop. 

Asparagus  seed  is  readily  taken  from  the  fruit  in  which  it 
grows  by  macerating  the  fruit  in  water  and  then  drying  it. 

Forcing  Asparagus  for  early  use  is  being  done  to  some  ex- 
tent near  large  cities  where  it  is  often  a  profitable  undertak- 
ing. For  this  purpose  the  roots  must  be  dug  in  the  fall  and 
carefully  stored  in  earth  in  a  cellar.  In  March,  make  a  good, 
slow  hotbed  and  put  the  roots  in  it  in  good  soil.  It  is  im- 
portant to  start  the  roots  slowly  or  the  shoots  will  be  spind- 
ling and  weak.  The  roots  stored  as  recommended  may  also 
be  forced  into  growth  in  a  warm  cellar,  shed,  greenhousee,  or  a 
part  of  a  permanent  bed  may  be  enclosed  in  glass  or  cotton 
sheeting. 

Varieties. — There  are  a  number  of  varieties,  and  they  are 
all  desirable  when  given  good  cultivation.  Among  the  best 
kinds  are  Conover's  Colossal,  Moore's  and  Palmetto. 

ONIONS.  (Allium  Cepa.) 
Native  of  Central  or  Western  Asia. —  Biennial,  sometimes 
perennial.  The  original  home  of  the  onion  is  not  known.  It 
has  no  true  stem,  but  this  is  represented  by  the  base  of  the 
bulb.  The  form,  color  and  shape  of  onions  vary  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent varieties.  The  free  portion  of  the  leaves  is  elongated 
and  swollen  in  the  lower  part.  The  flowers,  which  are  white 
or  lnac  in  color,  are  borne  in  dense,  round  heads  on  lo^g,  slen- 
der, hollow  stalks;  sometimes,  instead  of  flowers,  a  head  of 
small  bulbs  is  produced  and  no  seed  at  all.  This  may  occur  oc- 
casionally in  all  kinds,  but  is  the  almost  invariable  characteris- 


ONIONS.  121 

tic  of  the  tree  and  top  onions.  The  seeds  are  black,  angular 
and  flattish.  Usually  the  plant  after  seeding  dies  and  disap- 
pears entirely,  but  sometimes  seed  onions  produce  peculiar 
pointed  bulbs,  called  cloves,  as  well  as  seeds.  Such  plants  may 
be  considered  perennial  as  well  as  the  potato  onion  which  never 
seeds  and  is  propagated  by  the  division  of  its  bulbs.  The  onion 
has  been  cultivated  from  remote  antiquity,  and  there  are  very 
many  varieties  that  have  been  developed  for  different  purposes. 
These  are  almost  without  exception  grown  for  their  bulbs,  but 
in  a  few  cases  no  bulbs  are  formed.  The  bulbs  in  color  are 
white,  red  and  yellow,  with  intermediate  shades.  In  the  suc- 
cessful raising  of  the  onion,  good  judgment  and  experience  play 
an  important  part.  Perhaps  no  vegetable  crop  is  more  certain 
to  pay  the  skillful  grower  for  his  time  and  labor  and  none  more 
liable  to  cause  trouble  to  the  careless  beginner,  and  yet  its  cul- 
tivation is  quite  simple.  The  prices  for  onions  vary  greatly. 
They  seldom  are  so  cheap  as  to  make  the  crop  unprofitable;  but 
occasionally  they  get  down  to  fifteen  cents  per  bushel,  at  which 
price  they  cannot  be  grown  at  a  profit.  There  are  few  cinimals 
that  eat  onions,  and  if  not  sold  they  cannot  be  fed  to  stock  on  a 
large  scale,  as  is  the  case  with  most  vegetables.  As  a  money 
crop  for  careful  growers  in  many  sections  they  are  among  the 
most  reliable,  and  if  a  reasonable  amount  of  them  is  raised  each 
year  without  regard  to  the  price  the  preceding  year,  it  is  a  crop 
that  will  generally  average  a  good  profit. 

Land. — Onions  may  be  raised  on  any  good  retentive  soil. 
Sandy  land  is  too  apt  to  dry  out  in  summer  for  best  results.  On 
drained  muck  land,  large  crops  may  be  easily  raised;  although 
onions  grown  on  such  soil  are  often  a  little  looser  in  texture  than 
those  raised  on  drier  land.  The  land  should  be  rich,  fine  and 
free  from  weeds  and  any  strawy  manure  or  other  material  that 
would  interfere  with  close  cultivation.  Too  much  stress  cannot 
be  put  on  having  the  land  free  from  weed  seeds,  since  it  is  a 
crop  that  requires  much  hand  weeding  and  the  plants  are  quite 
delicate  when  young.  The  soil  should  be  rather  firm  for  onions 
and  plowed  in  the  fall  rather  than  in  the  spring.  Fall  plowing 
leaves  the  soil  firm  and  in  excellent  condition  for  the  crop. 
Sometimes  when  the  land  is  rich  it  is  desirable  not  to  plow  at 
all,  especially  it  is  was  in  onions  the  preceding  year,  but  instead 


122  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

to  make  a  seed  bed  by  the  use  of  a  disk  or  other  good  harrow 
and  plant  at  once;  in  fact,  better  results  will  generally  be  ob- 
tained from  spring  harrowing  than  from  spring  plowing  of  land 
to  be  used  for  onions.  Of  course,  if  the  land  is  to  be  harrowed 
only  to  prepare  it  for  the  crop,  it  is  very  important,  if  manure  is 
10  be  used,  that  this  be  very  fine,  so  that  the  harrow  will 
cover  it. 

Old  land  is  generally  preferred  for  onions,  and  this  crop  Is 
often  successfully  raised  on  the  same  land  for  many  years. 
From  the  fact  that  onion  land  is  always  most  carefully  attended 
to  and  gets  much  manure  and  tillage,  it  is  generally  in  better 
condition  for  onions  than  land  used  for  almost  any  other  crop. 
However,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  change  the  land  lor 
onions,  since  on  new  land  there  is  far  less  danger  from  disease 
and  insect  enemies  than  on  old  land.  Land  that  has  grown  any 
crop  requiring  high  culture  and  heavy  manuring  and  is  free 
from  weed  seeds  will  generally  grow  good  onions.  Sometimes 
onions  are  raised  on  newly  cleared  woodland  or  prairie  sod  with 
greatest  success,  simply  by  sowing  the  seed  broadcast  and  har- 
rowing it  in;  but  this  is  seldom  attempted. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — Before  sowing  the  seed  the  land  should 
be  made  very  smooth.  It  is  very  important  to  get  the  seed  in 
the  ground  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the 
land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  the  seed  should  be  sown  and 
the  earlier  it  is  sown  the  better.  The  seed  of  some  kinds  can 
be  sown  in  the  autumn  to  advantage,  but  on  land  that  is  in- 
clined to  "bake,"  it  is  a  bad  practice  and  is  seldom  attempted. 
There  is,  however,  a  fair  chance  of  a  crop  even  if  the  seed  is 
sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  June,  but  a  first-class  crop  from  seed 
sown  as  late  as  this  is  almost  out  of  the  question.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  May,  all  onion  land  should  have  been  sown.  The  distance 
between  the  rows  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  variety  grown, 
but  for  ordinary  purposes  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  fif- 
teen inches  apart  and  covered  one  inch  deep.  About  eighteen 
good  seed  should  be  sown  to  each  foot  of  row,  which  will  make 
It  necessary  to  use  four  or  five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  If 
there  is  danger  of  much  loss  from  the  depredations  of  the  onion 
maggot,  more  than  this  amount  of  seed  should  be  used;  where 
maggots  are  very  troublesome  some  growers  use  as  much  as  six 


ONIONS.  123 

pounds  per  acre.  The  seed  sower  should  be  carefully  tested  on 
a  floor  or  other  smooth  surface  before  using  it  in  the  field  to  see 
how  it  works.  It  is  very  important  to  know  the  germinating 
qualities  of  the  seed  sown,  since  if  it  is  of  low  germination  more 
must  be  used  than  if  it  is  of  best  quality.  Ninety  per  cent  of 
good  onion  seed  ought  to  germinate  if  the  conditions  are  favor- 
able. It  is  important  to  closely  study  these  matters,  as  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  the  land  well  stocked  with  plants  and  yet  not 
over  stocked.  It  is  better  to  fail  of  getting  quite  so  much  seed  on 
the  land  as  is  desired  than  it  is  to  get  very  much  more  than  is 
wanted,  for  in  the  first  case  the  onions,  although  somewhat 
scattering,  will  be  of  good  size,  while  if  the  plants  are  too  thick 
they  must  be  thinned  out,  or  the  onions  will  be  small  and  in- 
ferior. The  work  of  thinning  onions  on  a  large  scale  is  a  vewy 
expensive  operation,  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  having  to  do  it.  If  the  seed  is  sown  only  a  little  thicker 
than  the  plants  ought  to  stand,  it  is  sometimes  a  good  plan  in- 
stead of  thinning  them  out,  to  put  on  an  extra  dressing  of  some 
quick-acting,  easily-applied  manure,  such  as  hen  manure,  which 
will  probably  make  it  possible  for  the  land  to  mature  the  whole 
crop  in  good  shape.  Onions  have  the  quality  of  crowding  out 
to  the  sides  of  the  rows  and  on  top  of  one  another,  so  that  they 
may  grow  pretty  thick  and  still  be  of  good  size,  providing  other 
conditions  are  favorable  to  their  development.  It  is  important 
to  have  the  seed  sown  in  straight  rows.  If  the  first  row  is  laid 
off  with  a  line  or  otherwise  made  straight,  the  subsequent  rows 
are  easily  made  parallel  to  it  by  means  of  the  marker  on  the 
seed  sower.  If  there  are  found  to  be  some  vacancies  in  the 
rows  after  the  onions  appear,  these  may  be  filled  by  sowing 
onion  seed  in  them  by  hand;  late  in  the  season  such  vacancies 
may  be  sown  with  carrot  seed. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  plants  commence  to  break  the 
surface  soil,  cultivation  should  be  commenced  with  a  hand  cul- 
tivator that  will  work  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one  time  and 
throw  a  little  earth  from  the  plant;  hand  weeding  should  fol- 
low at  once.  At  the  second  hoeing,  the  plants  being  now  pretty 
strong,  the  soil  should  be  cultivated  somewhat  deeper.  This 
will  enable  a  careful  man  to  work  the  soil  very  close  to  the 
plants.     Onions  naturally  grow  in  the  surface  of  the  land  and 


124  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

not  below  it  and  should  never  be  hilled  up.  The  onion  crop 
should  be  hoed  and  weeded  as  often  as  the  weeds  appear  or 
whenever  the  ground  packs  hard  around  the  growing  plants. 
The  weeds  should  be  destroyed  when  small.  This  means  that 
until  early  summer  the  onions  should  be  hoed  about  once  every 
two  weeks.  When  the  plants  get  so  large  that  they  will  no 
longer  pass  under  the  straddle  cultivator  without  being  bruised 
the  work  of  cultivation  must  be  continued  between  the  rows 
until  the  bulbs  commence  to  form,  after  which  it  is  not  a  good 
plan  to  work  much  among  them,  since  pushing  the  tops  about 
tends  to  make  them  die  down  quicker  than  otherwise.  When 
the  onions  are  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar  and  before  the  tops 
fall  over,  it  is  a  good  plan,  if  the  land  is  not  very  rich,  to  apply 
some  quick-acting  fertilizer  such  as  hen  manure  or  a  commer- 
cial fertilizer  broadcast  over  the  crop.  This  should  be  done 
just  before  or  during  a  rain  if  possible.  For  this  purpose  dry, 
fine  hen  manure  is  good,  but  any  rich,  nitrogenous  fertilizer  will 
answer. 

If  the  plants  are  going  to  make  good  onions  they  will  be- 
come weak  in  the  neck  just  above  the  bulb  when  nearly  grown 
and  fall  flat  on  the  ground,  where  they  should  be  allowed  to  lie 
undisturbed  until  the  tops  and  roots  are  entirely  dried,  then  the 
bulbs  can  be  easily  pulled  out  of  the  ground  with  a  rake  or 
onion  puller.  In  the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul,  this  time  will  be  in 
August  or  the  early  part  of  September.  About  four  rows  of 
bulbs  should  be  thrown  together,  and  they  should  be  turned  with 
a  rake  every  few  days  until  perfectly  dry  and  then  be  put  under 
cover  to  protect  them  from  rain.  If  they  are  allowed  to  get  wet 
several  times  after  being  pulled,  the  outer  skins  are  liable  to 
come  off  and  thus  make  the  bulbs  unsightly.  If  not  pulled  for 
some  little  time  after  they  are  ripe,  especially  if  the  season  is 
moist,  new  roots  are  very  sure  to  start  and  the  roots  become 
grown  so  firmly  into  the  soil  that  the  work  of  pulling  and  dry- 
ing them  is  increased.  The  work  of  cutting  or  twisting  off  the 
tops,  called  topping,  may  be  left  until  the  onions  are  marketed, 
but  they  will  be  found  to  keep  much  better  if  "topped,"'  since  if 
the  tops  arc  left  on  they  prevent  a  free  circulation  of  the  air 
through  the  bulbs. 

"Scallions"  or  "Thick  Necks." — Sometimes,  too,  the  tops  of 


ONIONS.  125 

the  plant  do  not  die  down  as  they  should,  but  remain  green  and 
continue  to  grow  after  the  bulbs  are  well  formed,  and  become 
what  are  called  "scallions"  or  "thick  necks."  This  is  generally 
due  to  the  planting  of  poorly  selected  seed,  but  sometimes  it  is 
not  to  be  accounted  for.  In  such  cases  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended to  break  the  tops  down,  which  certainly  does  no  harm, 
but  it  is  of  doubtful  value.  A  better  way  is  to  pull  such  plants 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  grow  vigorously  after  once  having 
formed  good  bulbs,  dry  them  as  much  as  possible  and  remove 
the  tops.  However,  such  onions  do  not  generally  keep  well  and 
had  better  be  used  during  autumn  and  early  winter. 

Keeping  Onions.— Onions  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool 
place.  In  a  damp  cellar  they  will  sprout  and  grow  no  matter  if 
the  temperature  there  is  near  the  freezing  point.  They  will 
stand  quite  a  little  frost  without  much  injury,  but  if  frozen  and 
thawed  several  times  they  become  soft  and  do  not  keep  well, 
but  start  to  grow  very  quickly.  The  best  way  of  keeping  onions 
is  in  a  cold,  dry  room  in  slatted  bins  or  on  shelves  so  arranged 
that  the  air  can  circulate  through  them.  A  very  practical  plan 
is  to  put  them  in  barrels  without  heads,  having  holes  in  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  and  pile  these  on  top  of  one  another  two  tiers 
high,  first  putting  down  scantling  or  other  material  to  allow  the 
air  to  circulate  under  and  around  them.  If  our  common  onions 
are  frozen  solid  in  the  autumn  and  kept  so  all  winter,  they  will 
generally  come  out  right  in  the  spring.  A  good  way  to  do  this 
is  to  lay  them  eighteen  inches  thick  on  the  floor  of  a  loft  and 
cover  with  a  foot  or  so  of  hay.  Thus  arranged  they  will  not 
freeze  until  severe  weather  sets  in  and  will  remain  frozen  until 
spring.  They  may  also  be  put  in  water-proof  bins  in  the  field 
where  grown  and  treated  in  the  same  way.  They  shoald  never 
be  handled  when  frozen,  as  they  are  apt  to  bruise.  Freezing 
and  thawing  several  timas  seriously  injures  them,  but  if  kept 
frozen  and  gradually  thawed  out  they  come  out  in  very  nice 
condition.  After  thawing  out,  they  will  not  keep  well,  but 
quickly'  start  to  grow,  and  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  They 
Prizetaker  and  similar  kinds  are  an  exception  to  this  rule  and 
are  liable  to  be  ruined  if  frozen. 

Onion  Sets  is  a  term  applied  to  small  onions  which  are 
planted   out  in  the   spring   instead   of  seeds.     If   onions   under 


126  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are  planted  out  in  the 
spring,  they  do  not  go  to  seed  as  do  larger  onions,  but  form  a 
new  bulb,  and  form  it  much  earlier  than  they  are  formed  when 
grown  from  seed.  Taking  advantage  of  this  fact,  it  has  become 
a  common  practice  to  raise  these  small  onions  (sets)  and  plant 
them  out  for  early  summer  use.  It  does  not  matter  how  small 
the  set  is,  and  one  the  size  of  a  pea  is  as  good  as  one  much 
larger.  The  size  generally  preferred  is  about  one-half  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

Planting  Onion  Sets. — The  method  of  planting  sets  is  to 
have  the  land  in  the  same  condition  as  recommended  for  onion 
seed  and  plant  the  sets  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  the 
spring.  In  doing  this  mark  off  the  land  in  drills  twelve  inches 
apart  and  push  each  set  down  firmly  three  inches  deep  into  the 
mellow  soil,  leaving  them  three  inches  apart.  This  is  done  by 
hand,  and  each  set  is  handled  separately,  so  as  to  have  them 
right  side  up.  The  drill  is  then  closed  in  with  the  feet  or  rake, 
so  that  each  set  is  entirely  covered  up.  If  the  ground  is  dry, 
it  is  sometimes  rolled  to  make  it  still  more  compact  around  the 
bulbs,  but  it  is  generally  quite  moist  when  the  sets  are  planted 
in  early  spring.  As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  the  wheel  hoe 
is  used,  and  the  plants  kept  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil  well 
stirred.  By  this  method  we  will  have  onions  of  good  table  size 
by  the  first  of  July,  and  some  may  be  marketed  in  bunches  in  a 
green  state  in  June.  Onion  sets  seldom,  if  ever,  fail  to  produce 
good  crops  and  are  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  home  garden  and 
by  those  who  will  not  take  the  pains  necessary  to  grow  onions 
from  seed.  No  matter  how  poor  the  soil  or  the  cultivation 
where  the  sets  are  planted,  they  always  increase  in  size  and 
ripen  early.  There  is  no  danger  of  their  being  injured  by  freez- 
ing after  being  planted.  From  six  to  ten  bushels  of  sets  are  re- 
quired per  acre,  depending  on  their  size. 

The  raising  of  onion  sets  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  in 
some  localities,  and  it  is  a  crop  that  requires  much  skill  in 
handling.  Sandy  soil  of  rather  inferior  quality  but  free  from 
weeds  and  in  fine  tilth  is  best  for  this  purpose.  To  keep  the 
sets  from  growing  too  large,  it  is  customary  to  plant  from 
thirty  to  fifty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  and  not  plant  it  until  the 
latter    part   of   May.     This   treatment   crowds   the   seedlings   so 


ONIONS. 


127 


that  they  cannot  grow  large.  In  sowing  the  seed,  it  is  best  to 
go  over  the  rows  with  the  seed  sower  three  or  four  times,  sow- 
ing only  a  part  of  the  seed  each  time.  This  spreads  the  seed 
out  in  wide  drills  and  permits  of  more  even  work  than  would 
be  possible  were  it  attempted  to  sow  all  the  seed  by  going  over 
the  rows  once.  If  onion  sets  grow  too  large  it  is  often  almost 
impossmle  to  use  them  for  any  purpose,  since  they  are  too 
small  to  sell  well  except  for  pickling,  and  the  demand  for  this 
purpose  is  very  limited.     On  this  account,  if  it  is  feared  the  sets 


«M  m>\ 


Figure  52.— At  the  left:  onion  plants  as  dug.    On  the  right:  onion  plants  trim 
med  and  ready  for  transplanticg-. 


will  grow  too  lurge,  they  are  pulled  when  of  the  proper  size,  even 
if  still  quite  green.  The  further  cultivation  of  plants  for  sets  is 
the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions.  The  sets  should  be  taken 
up  in  August,  or  as  soon  as  ripe,  with  a  rake  or  onion  set  puller. 
When  dry  they  should  be  stored,  tops  and  all,  about  four  inches 
deep,  in  a  loft,  where  they  should  be  covered  with  a  foot  of  hay 
or  straw  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost  and  left  until  wanted  for 
planting  in  the  spring.     In  other  words,  they  should  be   kept 


128  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

frozen  all  winter  Treated  in  this  way  they  will  require  to  be 
cleaned  in  the  spring,  and  this  is  done  by  rubbing  them  in  the 
hands  to  loosen  the  dirt  and  tops  and  then  running  them  through 
a  fanning  mill.  After  this  they  are  run  over  a  screen  with  a 
three-fourths  inch  mesh,  and  only  those  that  go  through  it  are 
saved  for  sets.  This  work  of  cleaning  may  be  done  in  autumn 
before  storing  and  the  sets  mixed  with  chaff  to  aid  in  keeping 
them  over  winter. 

Transplanting  Onions. — Within  a  few  years  some  market 
gardeners  have  adopted  a  plan  of  raising  onions  by  sowing  the 
seed  in  March  in  a  hotbed  and  then  transplanting  the  seedlings 


~! 

'            i  t..c  - 

•  .     v. ':  '.    '"'-%:  S    v 

.--■•.                  ....  •  ^15  •  • 

-  ^& 

Figure  53.— Transplanting  Onions  in  the  Field. 

to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  it  works  well.  This  system  has 
the  merit  of  doing  away  with  the  first  few  weedings  in  the  open 
ground,  reduces  the  expense  of  seed  to  a  minimum  and  makes 
it  possible  to  raise  some  of  the  more  delicate  foreign  varieties 
of  onions,  which  command  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  It 
is,  however,  very  doubtful  if  the  common  field  onions  can  be 
raised  at  a  profit  under  this  method,  but  it  is  desirable  if  the 


ONIONS.  129 

Spanish  kinds  are  to  be  raised  in  this  section.  The  selection 
and  preparation  of  the  land  for  this  purpose  is  the  same  as  for  a 
field  crop.  The  seed  is  sown  in  a  hotbed  in  rows  three  inches 
apart,  or  on  a  small  scale  a  few  plants  may  be  raised  in  a  box 
in  the  window  of  the  living  room.  The  soil  for  this  purpose 
should  be  a  somewhat  sandy  loam  of  only  moderate  quality,  and 
that  which  has  no  manure  in  it  is  most  certain  to  grow  healthy 
plants.  If  very  thick  in  the  row,  the  plants  must  be  thinned 
out  so  as  not  to  crowd  one  another  too  much,  but  still  they  may 
be  grown  very  thickly;  as  many  as  twelve  to  fifteen  plants  to 
the  inch  of  row  is  about  right,  and  to  secure  this  amount  about 
twice  as  many  seeds  will  have  to  be  sown  to  the  inch.  Too 
much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the  raising  of  strong 
plants,  since  those  that  are  weak  and  spindling  are  very  cer- 
tain to  fail  when  moved. 

For  a  week  or  two  previous  to  setting  out  the  plants,  they 
should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  remove 
the  sashes  entirely  from  over  them  except  when  there  is  dan- 
ger of  frost,  so  that  the  plants  may  become  hardened  off,  as 
otherwise  they  are  liable  to  serious  injury  by  freezing  when 
moved  to  the  open  ground,  although  they  stand  some  freezing 
when  hardened  off.  They  do  not  transplant  so  well  when  soft 
and  succulent  as  when  properly  hardened.  The  land  and  prep- 
aration required  is  the  same  as  for  a  field  crop  of  onions.  The 
plants  should  be  set  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  rows  twelve 
inches  apart.  Before  setting  them  out  the  tops  should  be  most- 
ly cut  off,  and  this  is  especially  important  if  they  are  weak  and 
spindling,  as  they  are  then  very  sure  to  turn  yellow  and  die.  If 
the  roots  are  excessively  long,  they  may  be  shortened  to  facil- 
tate  transplanting.  The  plants  are  generally  set  in  small  fur- 
rows opened  with  a  hand  cultivator  or  with  a  marker.  The 
lower  part  of  the  bulb  should  be  about  an  inch  deep  in  the 
ground.  Tne  plants  are  easily  moved,  and  if  the  soil  is  well 
firmed  they  are  very  sure  to  live.  About  150,000  plants  are  re- 
quired for  an  acre,  and  it  is  a  big  job  to  transplant  them.  For 
this  purpose  children  can  generally  be  employed  at  low  wages 
and  they  will  do  the  work  very  well  if  carefully  looked  after. 
The  expense  of  transplanting  Is  variously  estimated  at  from  $25 


130 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


to  $50  per  acre.    Subsequent  cultivation  is  the  same  as  for  a 
field  crop  of  onions. 

Marketing. — In  a  general  way  the  directions  for  marketing 
onions  apply  to  any  other  crop.  They  should  be  sold  as  soon 
as  a  fair  price  can  be  obtained  for  them  and  not  stored  unless 
there  is  a  good  chance  of  a  rise.  In  some  localities  there  is  a 
large  demand  for  onions  for  bunching  purposes  before  the  bulbs 
are  formed.  In  these  places  it  will  sometimes  pay  to  pull  and 
sell  the  crop  before  the  tops  have  died  down,  but  generally  it 
should  be  allowed  to  ripen.  The  foreign  kinds,  such  as  can  only 
be  raised  here  by  the  transplanting  method,  are  generally  high- 
est in  price  in  early  autumn  and  should  then  be  sold.  The  tops 
should  always  be  removed  before  the  bulbs  are  marketed,  and 
all  small  bulbs  should  be  picked  out  and  sold  separately  for 
pickling  purposes.  Most  markets  prefer  onions  of  medium  size, 
globular  rather  than  flat  in  shape,  and  yellow  or  white  in  color 
rather  than  red.  Very  large  onions  of  the  common  type  are  not 
so  salable  as  those  of  medium  size;  but  of  the  foreign  kinds,  the 
larger  the  better,  and  good  specimens  sometimes  weigh  as  much 
as  two  pounds. 


Figure  54.— Varieties  of  Onions.     1— Southport  Yellow  Globe.    2— Silver  Skin. 
3— Red  Globe.    4— Prizetaker.    5 -Yellow  Danvers. 

Onions  for  the  Home  Garden  should  be  raised  partly  from 
seed  and  partly  from  sets  or  transplanting.  The  small  onions 
picked  out  from  one  season's  crop  may  be  used  as  sets  the  next 


ONIONS.  131 

year,   when   they    will   give   a   much   earlier   crop   than   those 
grown  from  seed. 

Varieties. — For  general  field  crops  in  this  section  no  onion 
is  more  certain  than  Red  Wethersfield.  The  Yellow  Danvers  is 
the  best  yellow  kind  for  this  purpose.  The  earliest  maturing 
large  kind  is  Extra  Early  Red.  For  raising  sets  the  Yellow 
Dutch,  called  also  Yellow  Strasburg,  is  the  best  kind,  but  any 
variety  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  For  growing  in  hotbeds, 
greenhouses  or  window  boxes  to  be  transplanted  to  the  open 
ground,  the  Prizetaker  and  Southport  Yellow  Globe  are  most  in 
demand. 

Potato  Onions  and  Shallots  are  always  grown  from  the  bulbs, 
which  increase  in  size  and  also  produce  a  cluster  of  bulbs 
(cloves)  around  the  one  that  is  planted.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  early  marketing  in  the  same  way  as  onion  sets. 

Egyptian,  or  Perennial  Tree,  Onion. — This  kind  is  perfectly 
hardy  and  does  not  form  bulbs,  but  the  bleached  stem  is  used  in 
a  green  state.  It  produces  no  seed,  but  instead  has  a  small  clus- 
ter of  bulblets  where  the  seed  cluster  should  be.  These  bulb- 
lets  are  planted  in  September  in  the  same  way  as  recommended 
for  onion  sets  and  are  ready  for  use  as  bunch  onions  very  early 
the  following  season. 

Top  Onions  is  a  name  applied  to  a  class  of  onions  that  pro- 
duce no  seed,  but  where  the  seed  should  be  have  a  cluster  of 
small  bulbs.  These  small  bulbs  when  planted  grow  into  large 
common  onions  and  when  these  common  onions  are  planted  they 
produce  a  crop  of  sets. 

Onion  Seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  bulbs  in  the  spring 
in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  for  this  purpose,  bulbs  of  the  great- 
est excellence  are  used.  It  is  best  to  set  the  bulbs  about 
six  inches  deep  and  six  inches  apart  in  each  furrow,  and  to  do 
this  planting  out  very  early  in  the  spring.  The  seed  stalks  will 
attain  a  height  of  about  three  feet.  The  seed  clusters  ripen 
somewhat  unevenly,  but  should  be  gathered  before  they  are  quite 
dry,  or  the  seed  will  shell  out  and  be  lost.  When  gathered,  they 
should  be  dried  in  airy  chambers  and  afterwards  threshed  out 
and  cleaned  with  a  fanning  mill  or  they  may  be  cleaned  by  being 
thrown  into  water.     The  latter  method  secures  the  best  seed. 


132  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

All  the  seed  that  is  full  and  plump  will  sink  in  water,  and  as 

the  chaff  and  light- 
er seeds  float  they 
are  readily  separated 
from  the  good  seed 
Some  of  the  seed 
that  floats  will 
grow,  but  it  is  not 
very  desirable  for 
planting.  The  same 
land  that  grows  a 
crop  of  onion  seed  is 
sometimes  used  for 
growing  a  crop  of  cu- 
cumbers or  melons  at 
the  same  time,  since 
the  onions  do  not 
shade  the  land  or 
take  much  nourish- 
ment from  it  except 
early  in  the  spring. 

Figure  55 — Onion  plants  in  flower. 

COMMON  GARLIC.     (Allium  sativum.) 


Native  of  southern  Europe. — Perennial. — All  parts  of  the 
plant  have  the  well-known  strong  burning  taste.  The  bulbs 
or  beads  are  composed  of  about  ten  cloves  enveloped  Dy  a  very 
thin,  white  or  rose-colored  membranous  skin.  The  plant 
hardly  ever  flowers  and  is  grown  by  means  of  the  cloves, 
for  which  purpose  those  on  the  outside  of  the  cluster  should 
be  used.  These  should  be  planted  in  good  rich  soil  in  about 
the  same  way  as  onion  sets.  They  should  be  gathered  after  the 
bulb  clusters  are  well  formed.  This  vegetable  is  scarcely  used 
at  the  north,  while  in  southern  European  countries  it  is  quite 
common.     It  is  said  that  it  has  a  much  stronger  burning  taste 


ONIONS.  133 

when  grown  at  the  north  than  when  grown  in  the  south.     What 
is  known  as  common  garlic  is  the  kind  most  generally  used. 


Figure  56.— 1— French  Shallots.      2— Top    Onions    (red). 
4— Garlic.    5— Potato  Onions. 

LEEKS. 


3— Jersey    Shallots, 


Figure  57— Leek. 

vated   in   much  the 


(Allium  porrum.) 
Said  to  be  a  native  of  Switzer 
land. — Biennial. — The  leek  is  closely 
allied  to  the  onion,  which  it  resem- 
bles in  flavor,  color  of  seed  and  flowei. 
However,  it  does  not  form  a  bulb  but 
a  straight  bunch  of  leaves,  that  are 
used  almost  entirely  in  a  fresh  or  un- 
cooked condition.  The  leaves  are  flat 
instead  of  round  and  hollow,  as  is  the 
case  with  onions.  As  yet  this  vege- 
table is  little  grown  in  this  country, 
except  around  the  large  cities. 

Cultivation. — Its  requirements  are 
about  the  same,  and  it  may  be  culti- 
same   way   as   the   onion,   but   it   is   more 


1"4  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

common  to  sow  the  seed  early  in  spring  and  transplant  in 
summer,  settling  plants  very  deep,  as  the  market  value  de- 
pends on  the  blanched  condition  of  the  stem;  and  for  the  same 
reason  in  hoeing  the  soil  is  drawn  up  over  the  stem.  They 
transplant  very  easily  when  the  soil  is  moist,  but  should  have 
the  tops  trimmed  off  as  recommended  in  transplanting  onions. 
If  they  are  not  transplanted,  especial  care  should  be  taken  to 
draw  the  soil  towards  the  plants  in  hoeing.  They  may  be  stored 
in  the  same  manner  as  celery,  and  are  marketed  in  bunches 
the  same  as  green  onions. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  varieties  which  vary  in  form 
and  color. 

Large  Flag  leek  is  a  popular  sort  and,  perhaps,  more  largely 
grown  than  any  other. 

Scotch  Flag  or  Musselburgh  leek  is  longer  than  the  above, 
but  not  quite  so  thick. 

CHIVES.  (Allium  schoenoprasum.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — A  hardy  plant  growing  In 
thick  tufts.  Bulbs  oval,  scarcely  as  large  as  a  hazelnut,  forming 
compact  masses;  leaves  very  numerous,  grass-like  in  appear- 
ance and  hollow.  Flower  stems  in  terminal  clusters  of  violet- 
red  flowers  and  usually  barren.  The  tops  have  an  onion-like 
flavor  and  are  used  in  seasoning. 

Culture. — Chives  are  propagated  by  dividing  the  tufts.  They 
are  not  much  used  and  are  generally  grown  as  edgings  for  beds 
in  the  garden.    Of  the  easiest  culture. 

THE  BUCKWHEAT  FAMILY.  (Order  Polygonaceae.) 
The  buckwheat  family  includes  herbs  which  alternate  entire 
leaves  and  stipules  in  the  form  of  sheaths  above  the  swollen 
joints  of  the  stem.  Flowers  mostly  perfect  with  a  one-celled 
ovary  bearing  two  or  three  styles  or  stigmas.  Fruit  usually  an 
achene  either  flattened  or  three  or  four-angled  or  winged.  Some- 
times agreeably  acid  as  in  sorrel  and  sometimes  cathartic  as 
the  roots  of  rhubarb.  Only  rhubarb  is  here  discussed,  but  other 
familiar  plants  that  belong  to  this  order  are  Sorrel,  Bitter 
Curled  and  other  docks,  Knotwood,  Smartweed,  Bindweed  or 
Wild  Buckwheat  and  Field  Buckwheat. 


RHUBARB. 


135 


RHUBARB  OR  PIE  PLANT.  (Rheum  rhaponticum.) 
The  cultivated  varieties  of  rhubarb  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  come  from  Mongolia,  though  it  is  quite  possible  that  some 
varieties  may  have  sprung  from  a  North  American  species.  The 
plant  is  an  herbaceous  perennial  whose  leaf  stalks  are  used  for 
sauce,  pies,  etc.  It  sends  up  a  flower  stalk  often  four  feet  high, 
and  produces  a  large  amount  of  seed  each  year.  It  is  perfectly 
hardy  in  gardens,  even  in  very  severe  situations,  and  when  once 
planted  continues  to  yield  abundant  crops  for  many  years.  The 
seeds  are  large  and  triangular. 

Culture. — Rhubarb  is  readly  increased  from  the  seed,  which 
germinates  quickly.     Seedlings  vary  considerably  but  not  enough 

to  prevent  this  method  of 
propagation  from  being 
the  one  most  commonly 
practiced.  They  attain 
good  transplanting  size  in 
one  year.  It  is  customary 
to  sow  the  seed  in  rows 
three  feet  apart  early  in 
the  spring,  and  set  out  the 
plants  when  one  year  old 
where  they  are  to  grow; 
the  plants  may  also  be 
thinned  out  and  a  few  al- 
lowed to  remain  where 
the  seeds  are  sown.  When 
it  is  desired  to  propagate 
the  specially  valuable 
qualities  of  individual  plants,  it  is  done  by  dividing  the  roots, 
using  care  to  take  at  least  one  good  bud  with  each  piece  of  root. 
This  is  the  only  sure  way  of  getting  the  best  plants. 

It  is  preferable  to  set  the  plants  out  in  the  fall  where  they 
are  to  grow,  but  spring  planting  is  often  followed.  They  should 
be  set  in  the  richest  of  land  four  feet  apart  each  way.  The 
stalks  should  not  be  pulled  up  until  the  spring  of  the  second 
year  and  then  only  to  a  small  extent;  the  third  year  they  should 
give  a  good  crop.    The  only  culture  needed  is  to  keep  the  ground 


Figure    58. — Rhubarb    plant    in    flower 


136  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

free  from  weeds  and  loose,  and  to  use  plenty  of  manure.  In 
gathering  rhubarb  the  stalks  should  be  removed  from  the  crown 
by  a  jerk  downward  and  sideways,  and  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  be  so  rough  about  it  as  to  pull  the  buds  from  the  crown  at 
the  same  time.  There  is  little  danger  of  pulling  more  leaves 
than  the  plant  can  stand  without  injury,  but  in  the  case  of  a 
young  plantation  it  would  not  be  well  to  remove  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  leaves  at  any  one  time.    The  stalks  are  most  in  de- 


Figure  59— Pieces  of  rhubarb  roots  cut  off  for  planting-  out. 

mand  early  in  the  spring,  but  there  is  more  or  less  call  for 
them  all  summer.  The  seed  stalks  should  be  cut  off  as  soon 
as  they  appear,  so  as  to  throw  their  strength  into  leaves  and 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  seed,  if  the  largest  amount  of  stalks 
is  wanted. 

Forcing  Rhubarb. — For  winter  and  spring  use  rhubarb  is 
often  forced  in  greenhouses  and  cold  frames.  The  roots  of  any 
age  are  taken  up  in  autumn,  crowded  together  under  the  benches 
in  greenhouses  or  placed  in  boxes  or  barrels  with  a  little  soil  be- 
tween them,  and  put  in  any  convenient  place  in  the  greenhouse 
or  a  warm  light  room  or  cellar  where  they  start  into  growth  in 
February.  They  are  also  planted  out  in  warm  sheds.  Still  an- 
other way  of  forcing  rhubarb  is  by  putting  a  cold  frame  over  the 
plants  in  the  early  spring  where  they  are  growing  in  the  open 


BEETS.  137 

ground.  This  method  may  be  improved  by  heavily  mulching  the 
plants  so  as  to  keep  out  the  frost  in  winter.  The  roots  are  some- 
times lifted  in  autumn,  planted  close  together  in  a  deep  cold 
frame  and  covered  with  leaves  to  keep  out  frost.  In  March  the 
leaves  are  removed  and  the  sashes  put  on.  This  method  has  the 
advantage  of  using  the  sashes  to  the  best  advantage,  but  roots 
that  are  dug  and  then  forced  are  worthless  for  further  planting. 
In  order  to  increase  the  length  of  the  stalks  it  is  a  common 
practice  where  but  a  small  amount  is  grown  to  put  headless  bar- 
rels over  each  plant  in  the  spring  when  the  leaves  are  starting 
into  growth,  and  in  striving  to  reach  the  light  the  leaf  stalks 
naturally  grow  long  and  tender.  An  old  sash  laid  over  the  bar- 
rel is  an  improvement  on  this  method.  , 

Varieties. — There  are  several  varieties,  but  the  following 
kinds  are  the  most  highly  esteemed: 

Myatt's  Linneus. — An  early  sort  having  deep  green  stalks 
and  attaining  to  a  large  size. 

Myatt's  Victoria. — A  much  later  kind  than  the  preceding. 
Stalks  red,  very  thick  and  large. 

THE  GOOSEFOOT  FAMILY.  (Order  Chenopodiaceae.) 
The  Goosefoot  Family  includes  chiefly  homely  herbs,  with  in- 
conspicuous greenish  flowers.  The  ovary  is  one-celled  and  one- 
seeded.  Leaves  chiefly  alternate.  Besides  the  beet,  mangel  wurt- 
zel,  Swiss  chard  and  spinach,  whose  cultural  directions  are  here 
given,  it  includes  such  weeds  as  Russian  thistle,  goosefoot  and 
lamb's  quarter  or  pigweed. 

BEET.     (Beta  Vulgaris.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — This  plant  in  the  first  year  of 
its  growth  forms  a  fleshy  root,  and  goes  to  seed  the  second  year. 
The  seed  stalk  is  about  four  feet  high.  What  is  usually  sold 
and  planted  as  beet  seed  is  in  reality  a  fruit  and  is  made  up 
of  several  seeds  imbedded  in  corn-like  calyxes;  the  seed  itself 
is  very  small  and  kidney-shaped,  with  a  thin  brown  skin.  The 
roots  vary  greatly  in  form  and  size  and  in  color  from  a  reddish 
white  to  a  deep  dark  red.  Some  varieties  have  special  quali- 
ties for  table  use,  while  others  are  valuable  for  feeding  stock 
or  for  sugar  only. 

The  garden  beet  is  easily  grown  and  is  a  very  reliable  crop. 


138 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


It  prefers  a  very  rich,  sandy,  well-worked  soil,  but  will  grow  in 
any  land  that  is  fit  for  corn.  For  early  use  some  early-ma- 
turing kind  should  be  selected  and  the  seeds  should  be  sown  in 
rows  sixteen  inches   apart  in  the  open  ground  as   soon  as  the 

soil  can  be  worked  in  the 
spring.  Ten  seeds  should  be 
sown  to  each  foot  of  row  and 
covered  one  inch  deep.  The 
young  plants  will  stand  quite 
a  severe  frost  without  injury. 
As  soon  as  the  seedlings  ap- 
pear they  should  be  cultivat- 
ed with  a  wheel  hoe,  and  the 
cultivation  repeated  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  When  they 
are  eight  or  ten  inches  high, 
thinning  should  be  commenc- 
ed and  continued  until  the 
plants  are  six  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.  These  thinnings 
make  excellent  greens.  If 
sown  as  recommended,  they 
will  be  large  enough  for 
table  use  in  June  and  will 
be  good  for  use  the  rest  of 
the  seed  should  not  be  sown 
of  June.  For  late  plant- 
put  the  rows  two  feet 
are  nicely 
Stock   and 


Figure  60.— Bunch  of  Eclipse  beets. 
the  summer.  For  winter  use, 
until  the  last  of  May  or  first 
ing  some  growers  prefer  to 
or  more  apart  so  that  when  the  plants 
started  they  can  be  cultivated  by  horse  power, 
sugar  beets  should  be  sown  in  rows  about  thirty  inches  apart, 
to  allow  of  easy  cultivation.  These  should  be  sown  from  the 
middle  to  the  last  of  May  and  covered  somewhat  deeper  than 
is  recommended  for  early  table  beets,  perhaps  one  and  one- 
half  inches  deep.  The  importance  of  very  early  and  constant 
cultivation  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  on.  Beet  seed  may 
be  sown  by  a  machine  seed  sower,  but  most  of  the  sowers  in 
use  will  need  a  little  more  careful  watching  when  sowing  this 


BEETS.  13» 

than  with  most  other  seeds,  as  the  rough  seeds  (fruit)  are  liable 
to  clog  the  feed  hole.  There  are  a  few  beet  seed  sowing  ma- 
chines adapted  for  horse  power  that  it  will  probably  pay  one 
to  use  where  a  large  amount  of  land  is  to  be  cultivated  in 
beets.  About  six  pounds  of  seed  is  required  per  acre,  and  it 
is  always  a  good  plan  to  sow  an  abundance  of  seed,  as  it  does 
not  start  very  uniformly. 

Forcing  Beets. — Beets  are  easily  forced  by  sowing  the  early 
maturing  kinds  in  February  or  March  in  hotbeds,  where  they 
may  be  left  to  mature  or  may  be  transplanted  when  of  proper 
size.  It  is,  however,  best  to  allow  them  to  grow  to  table  size 
without  transplanting,  as  this  always  puts  the  plants  back,  and 
they  recover  from  it  slowly. 

Harvesting  and  Keeping  Beets. — On  the  approach  of  severe 
weather — in  this  section  about  the  middle  of  October — beets 
should  be  pulled  and  the  tops  cut  or  twisted  off,  but  the  top  of 
the  root  should  not  be  cut  off.  Light  frosts  do  not  hurt  them 
much  especially  when  they  are  protected  with  a  heavy  growth 
of  foliage,  but  when  the  surface  of  the  ground  freezes  hard  there 
is  danger  of  permanent  injury  to  the  roots.  Beets  are  easily 
kept  in  a  cold  cellar.  It  is  generally  best  to  put  them  outside 
when  dug  and  allow  them  to  remain  there  until  severe  weather 
sets  in.  If  the  air  of  the  cellar  is  very  dry  the  beets  should 
be  covered  with  earth  after  being  put  in  bins,  or  they  will  wilt 
and  become  corky.  Beet  seed  is  grown  by  planting  out  the 
roots  about  the  middle  of  May,  two  feet  apart  in  rows  three 
feet  apart.  The  seed  ripens  in  the  summer  and  is  generally 
threshed  off  as  soon  as  ripe. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  garden  beets,  and 
they  vary  considerably  in  size,  form  and  color,  time  of  matur- 
ing  and   other   characteristics.     Among  the   most  valuable   are  • 
the  following: 

Eclipse. — A  very  early  dark-red  turnip-shaped  beet  of  good 
quality.  Valuable  for  early  or  late  sowing.  A  favorite  with 
market  gardeners. 

Egyptian. — Valuable  for  early  sowing. 

Bastian's  Early  Turnip  Beet. — A  valuable  early  sort,  tender, 
sweet  and  good  in  every  way;  one  of  the  best  for  early  or  late 
planting. 


140  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Dewing's  Improved  Blood  Turnip  Beet. — A  first-class  beet  in 
every  respect;  valuable  for  winter  or  summer  use. 

Diseases  of  Beets. — The  beet  is  subject  to  several  diseases, 
and  it  is  most  healthy  when  grown  on  new  land. 

Beet  Scab  is  a  disease  which  ruptures  the  skin  of  the 
beet  in  a  manner  similar  to  scab  on  potatoes.  Recent  investiga- 
tions show  that  this  disease  is  the  same  as  potato  scab.  On 
this  account,  beets  should  not  follow  potatoes  on  land  that  has 
grown  a  scabby  crop  unless  there  is  an  interval  of  several  years 
between  them.  Beets  are  sometimes  subject  to  a  rust  that  in- 
jures the  foliage,  but  seldom  very  seriously. 

Stock  Beets  (often  called  Mangel  Wurzel).  Stock  beets  are 
gross  feeders  and  prefer  rich  soil.  They  require  the  same  care 
as  table  beets,  but  the  rows  should  be  thirty  inches  apart,  so 

as  to  allow  of  cultivating  them 
with  horse  implements.  The  seed 
may  be  sown  with  any  common 
garden  seed  drill  after  first  laying 
off  the  rows  with  a  marker,  or  it 
may  be  sown  with  a  common  grain 
drill  by  stopping  the  flow  of  seed 
through  a  part  of  the  holes.  It  is 
a  very  good  plan  to  sow  radish  or 
rutabaga  seed  with  the  beet  seed, 
as  it  starts  quickly  and  the  line  of 
the  row  is  thus  easily  seen,  so  that 

cultivation   may   be    started    early. 
Figure  61.-Sugar  Beet.  Thig  .g  yery  important  in  land  that 

is  somewhat  weedy.  About  six  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will 
give  about  twelve  seeds  (fruits)  to  a  foot. 

There  are  many  good  varieties  of  stock  beets.  Among  the 
best  are  Long  Red,  Yellow,  or  Golden  Tankard,  Yellow  Globe 
and  American  Sugar.  The  latter  is  not  a  true  sugar  beet,  but  is 
much  richer  in  sugar  than  the  ordinary  varieties  of  stock  beets 
and,  possibly,  of  better  feeding  value. 

Sugar  Beets,  from  which  is  made  a  large  amount  of  the 
sugar  of  commerce,  are  grown  in  a  similar  way  to  stock  beets, 
but   on    a   large    scale    require    a    rather    different   and    special 


BEETS. 


141 


treatment.  There  is  no  trouble  about  raising  them  with  a 
large  percentage  of  sugar  in  any  of  the  northern  states,  but 
the  drawbacks  to  its  becoming  a  more  general  industry  are  the 
very  expensive  machinery  required  to  extract  the  sugar  eco- 
nomically on  a  large  scale,  the  small  margin  of  profit  and  the 
low  price  the  manufacturers  have  been  willing  to  pay  for  the 
beets.  Sugar  beets  grow  entirely  below  ground,  which  makes 
them  difficult  to  dig,  and  they  do  not  grow  to  large  size,  seldom 
weighing  more  than  four  pounds.  The  part  of  a  beet  above 
ground  does  not  contain  much  sugar.  It  is  recommended  to  sow 
about  18  lbs.  of  seed  of  sugar  beets  per  acre. 


LEAF  BEET  OR  SWISS  CHARD. 

Native    of    Southern    Europe. — Biennial. — This    appears    to 

be  exactly  the  same  plant  as  the 
beet  root,  except  that  in  its 
case  cultivation  has  developed 
the  leaves  instead  of  the  root. 
The  botanical  characteristics,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  fruit  seed 
and  flowers  are  precisely  alike 
in  both  plants.  The  root  is 
branched  and  not  very  fleshy, 
while  the  leaves  are  large  and 
numerous,  with  the  stalk  and 
midrib  fleshy  and  very  large. 
The  plants  vary  in  color  from 
deep  red  to  nearly  white.  The 
fleshy  leaf  stalks  are  cooked  and 
served  like  asparagus. 

Culture. — The  plants  are  grown 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  com- 
mon table  beets.  Among  the  best  varieties  is  one  known  as  the 
Silvery  Swiss  chard. 


Figure  62.— Swiss  Chard. 


SPINACH.     (Spinacia  oleracea.) 

Properly  a  native  of  Western  Asia. — An  annual  plant  cul- 
tivated for  its  leaves  which  form  popular  spring  and  early  sumj 


142 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


mer   greens.    It   has   a   seed   stalk   about  two   feet  high.     The 

varieties  are   divided  according  to  their  seeds   into  round   and 

prickly  -  seeded  sorts. 
The  latter  have  sharp, 
hard  prickles  on  the 
seeds.  This  division  is 
so  pronounced  that 
some  botanists  have 
treated  these  classes 
as  distinct  species.  The 
prickly-seeded  sorts  are 
considered  the  hardiest, 
while  among  the  round- 
seeded  kinds  are  per- 
haps the  most  desirable 

varieties  for  table  use,  but  this  difference  is  not  always  very 

clear. 


Figure   63. — Spinach. 


Culture. — The  seed  of  spinach  may  be  sown  in  hotbeds  or 
cold  frames  very  early  in  the  spring  or  outdoors  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  A 
supply  may  be  had  during  the  whole  growing  season  by  making 
a  succession  of  sowings  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 
Under  good  conditions  it  will  be  ready  for  table  use  in  about  six 
weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed.  In  planting  it  outdoors 
the  rows  should  be  about  twelve  inches  apart.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  about  one  inch  deep  and  about  forty  seeds  or  more 
sown  to  the  foot  or  row.  It  is  well  to  use  plenty  of  seed  and 
since  it  often  starts  poorly  in  dry  weather  extra  precautions  are 
taken  when  sowing  it  at  that  time.  The  plants  may  be  thinned 
out  when  too  thick,  and,  no  matter  how  small  they  are  they  form 
a  good  vegetable.  Spinach  is  often  sown  in  the  spring  between 
early  peas,  cabbage,  potatoes  or  other  slow  growing  crops.  For 
early  spring  use  the  seeds  of  the  hardiest  kinds  should  be 
sown  in  this  section  in  the  latter  part  of  August.  The  plants 
should  grow  well  and  attain  a  good  size  during  the  cool  weather 
of  autumn,  and  on  the  approach  of  winter  they  should  be  covered 
with  about  two  inches  of  straw,  hay  or  similar  material.  When 
thus  treated  the  crop  generally  comes  through  the  winter  in  this 


SPINACH.  143 

section  without  serious  injury  and  after  making  a  little  growth  in 
the  spring  is  marketable.  It  is  harvested  by  cutting  the  plants 
off  at  the  top  of  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  a  short  push  hoe 
is  run  under  the  plants.  They  are  then  freed  from  dead  leaves, 
and  after  being  washed  are  ready  for  marketing.  Spinach 
requires  a  very  rich  soil  and  plenty  of  well-rotted  manure.  To 
secure  the  best  results  from  early  spring  sowings,  it  will  pay 
those  raising  it  for  market,  to  use  nitrate  of  soda  on  the  land  in 
small  quantities,  say,  two  applications  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five 
pounds  per  acre  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  after  the  crop  has 
started.  This  material  has  a  wonderful  effect  on  early  leaf  crops. 
Where  nitrate  of  soda  is  not  used  hen  manure  is  very  desirable 
The  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  this  crop  is  very  marked  and 
often  results  in  more  than  doubling  its  size.  Spinach  generally 
is  very  free  from  insects  and  fungous  diseases. 

Varieties. — There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  spinach  dif- 
fering in  earliness,  hardiness  and  in  the  time  they  remain  in 
edible  condition,  as  well  as  in  many  minor  matters.  Among 
the  best  are  the  following: 

Long  Standing.— An  excellent  sort  for  spring  and  summer 
sowing,  since  it  stands  longer  than  any  other  sort  before  going 
to  seed. 

Prickly,  or  Winter.— A  prickly  seed  variety  that  is  very 
popular.  It  will  withstand  very  severe  weather  without  serious 
injury  if  lightly  protected  by  hay  or  straw  and  is  probably  the 
best  sort  for  autumn  planting  in  this  section. 

Bloomsdale.— A  nice  hardy  sort  with  long,  curled  leaves  of 
excellent  quality.     Very  hardy. 

THE  CABBAGE  FAMILY.     (Order  Cruciferae.) 

The  cabbage  family  is  made  up  of  herbaceous  plants  having 
watery  juice,  a  pungent  (peppery)  taste,  and  floral  envelopes 
arranged  on  the  plan  of  four,  with  their  petals  generally  spread 
out  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Stamens  six,  two  of  which  are  short- 
er than  the  other  four.  Seed  all  embryo.  This  is  a  large  family 
and  includes  besides  the  cabbage,  cauliflower,  Brussel's  sprouts, 
kale,  kohl-rabi,  horseradish,  cress,  water  cress,  whose  cultural 
directions  are  given  under  this  head,  among  common  weeds,  the 
mustard,  French  weed,  false  flax,  pepper  cress,  shepherd's  purse 


144 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


and  many  garden  flowers  such  as  nasturtium,  gillyflower,  candy- 
tuft and  alyssum. 

CABBAGE.  (Brassica  oleracea.) 
Native  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia. — Biennial. — It  grows 
naturally  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet  and  scarcely  resem- 
bles any  of  our  cultivated  kinds.  The  part  eaten  is  termed  the 
head  and  is  simply  a  cluster  of  leaves  enwrapping  the  top  of  the 
stem,  or  in  other  words,  a  large  bud.  It  attains  the  height  of 
three  or  four  feet  when  it  goes  to  seed.  The  flowers  are  gener- 
ally yellow  in  color  and  conspicuous,  though  uot  large.  There 
are  three  great  groups  of  cabbages  distinguished  respectively  by 
their  (1)  red  leaves,  (2)  smooth  leaves  and  (8)  wrinkled  leaves. 
Red  cabbages  are  chiefly  esteemed  for  pickling.  The  varieties 
with   smooth,   light  green   leaves    (common   cabbage)    are   com- 


Fignre  64 — Cross  section  of  cabbage  head,  showing  arrangement  of  stem  and 
leaves  and  that  it  is  simply  a  big  terminal  bud. 

monly  cultivated,  while  the  Savoy  cabbage,  which  has  wrinkled 
leaves,  and  is  of  the  best  quality,  is  little  grown  because  it  does 
not  produce  so  abundantly  as  the  common  kinds.  The  original 
species  from  which  the  cabbage  has  sprung  is  also  the  parent  of 
the  cauliflower,  kale  and  Brussel's  sprouts.  The  seed  of  the  cab- 
bage is  dark  brown  in  color,  smooth  and  round. 


CABBAGE.  145 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  cabbage  is  a  rich  alluvial  or  prairie 
loam,  moist,  yet  well  drained  and  in  fine  condition.  While  some 
varieties  will  mature  on  poor  soil  yet  they  all  require  the  highest 
cultivation  for  the  best  development.  This  is  especially  true 
of  early  cabbage,  which  needs  mucn  richer  soil  than  the  late 
crop.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  occasionally  change  the  land  used  for 
cabbage;  in  some  eastern  sections  it  is  necessary  to  do  this  each 
year  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  called  club- 
root,  which  is  not  yet  found  in  this  section. 

Manure. — The  cabbage  is  a  gross  feeder  and  needs  lots  of 
rich  manure.  Most  of  our  best  growers  apply  manure  broadcast, 
but  when  there  is  a  necessity  of  economizing  with  the  manure, 
it  may  be  applied  to  better  advantage  in  the  hill,  providing  the 
land  is  in  good  condition.  In  growing  early  cabbage  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  apply  a  handful  or  so  of  dry  hen  manure  arounl 
the  hills  when  the  plants  are  half  grown.  This  should  not  be  put 
close  to  the  plants,  but  scattered  over  a  radius  of  a  foot  or  more 
from  the  plants  and  then  cultivated  into  the  soil. 

Early  Cabbage. — The  methods  of  cultivating  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  early  cabbage  are  quite  different  from  those  followed 
in  raising  late  cabbage,  and  the  subject  of  cultivation  naturally 
groups  itself  under  these  heads.  The  soil  preferred  for  early 
cabbage  is  a  light,  rich,  sandy  loam,  well  drained  and  sloping  to 
the  south,  providing  it  is  not  too  liable  to  injury  from  drouth. 
In  milder  sections  of  the  country  it  is  customary  to  sow  the 
seed  for  early  cabbage  in  September,  and  winter  the  plants  over 
in  cold  frames.  This  method  is  impracticable  in  the  extreme 
Northern  states,  and  the  best  plan  to  follow  in  such  sections  is 
that  of  sowing  the  seed  in  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  last  of  February.  As  the  plants  need  room  they  are 
transplanted  so  as  not  to  be  crowded.  If  they  are  kept  growing 
freely  they  will  be  large  enough  to  transplant  to  the  open  ground 
by  the  first  of  April. 

Setting  the  Plants. — Cabbage  plants  will  grow  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, and  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  plant  them  out  early 
in  the  spring,  although  the  weather  may  be  damp  and  cold.  At 
this  season  of  the  year  they  may  not  show  any  great  increase 
in  leaf  surface,  but  they  form  roots  rapidly,  and  these  are  a  great 


146  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

help  in  providing  a  vigorous  growth  later  in  the  season.  As  a 
rule,  early  cabbage  should  be  set  out  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out 
in  the  spring  and  the  ground  nicely  settled.  It  is  important  to 
set  the  plants  deep  in  the  ground  at  this  season,  and  since  the 
stem  is  the  part  most  liable  to  injury  from  hard  fronts,  it  should 
be  set  deep  enough  to  bring  the  base  of  the  leaves  below  the 
ground.  This  is  very  important  and  frequently  makes  the  differ- 
ence between  success  and  failure  in  growing  the  early  crop.  If 
severe  weather  is  threatened  after  the  plants  are  set  out,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  draw  a  hoe-ful  of  earth  over  each  plant,  for  if  frozen 
when  they  are  covered  with  earth  they  will  not  be  injured,  and 
they  can  renrain  buried  in  the  ground  several  days  in  cold  weath- 
er without  serious  injury.  However,  the  earth  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  good  weather  is  assured.  The  distance  between 
the  plants  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  varieties  to  be  culti- 
vated; under  ordinary  conditions  the  large,  early  kinds  should 
be  set  out  two  feet  apart  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  This  arrange- 
ment permits  of  horse  cultivation  both  ways  when  the  plants 
are  young  and  one  way  when  they  are  full  grown. 

Cultivation  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be 
clearly  seen,  and  should  be  repeated  after  each  rain  or  at  least 
once  a  week  until  the  crop  is  grown.  For  this  purpose  a  fine- 
tooth  horse  cultivator  is  the  most  desirable  instrument,  and.  if 
the  work  is  carefully  done  there  will  be  very  little  need  of  hand 
hoeing.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  the  earth  slightly  toward  the 
plants  when  they  are  about  half  grown. 

Harvesting  the  Crop. — Treated  in  this  way,  under  ordinary 
conditions  they  will  be  nicely  "headed  up"  by  the  first  of  July 
and  ready  for  marketing.  The  season  for  marketing,  however, 
will  depend  largely  on  the  kinds  grown.  If  the  land  is  at  once 
plowed  when  the  crop  is  harvested,  it  can  be  used  for  growing 
some  late  crop,  as  late  beans,  spinach  or  celery.  By  care  in 
sowing  and  the  selection  of  varieties  early  cabbage  may  be  con- 
tinued till  late  cabbage  is  in  the  market. 

Retarding  the  Heading  of  cabbages  may  be  accomplished  by 
starting  the  roots  on  one  side  of  the  head  or  by  slightly  pulling 
the  plant  so  as  to  break  some  of  the  roots.  This  is  very  impor- 
tant some  seasons,  as  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  market  over- 
stocked with  this  vegetable  just  as  the  crop  is  full  grown,  and 


CABBAGE.  147 

if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  remain  growing  when  once  a  hard 
head  is  formed  they  are  very  sure  to  burst  and  be  spoiled.  By 
starting  the  roots  a  little,  the  growth  is  checked  and  heads  may 
be  kept  from  spoiling  for  a  week  or  more. 

Late  Cabbage  is  a  term  generally  given  to  cabbage  grown 
from  seed  sown  in  the  open  ground.  It  may  be  ready  for  use  in 
September  or  in  the  late  autumn  and  be  kept  all  winter. 

Soil. — Any  land  that  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn  is  in 
good  condition  for  late  cabbage,  but  the  richer  the  land  the  bet- 
ter the  chances  of  success.  Less  manure  is  required  for  late 
than  for  early  cabbage.  Late  cabbage  is  generally  raised  by  sow- 
ing the  seed  in  the  hills,  or  by  sowing  it  in  a  seed  bed  and  set- 
ting the  plants  in  the  field  when  of  sufficient  size.  Each  of  these 
methods  has  its  advantages  and  will  be  referred  to  separately 
further  on. 

Sowing  Cabbage  Seed. — Late  cabbage  may  be  raised  by  sow- 
ing the  seed  in  a  seedbed,  in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  in 
the  spring,  and  when  the  plants  are  large  enough  transplanting 
them  to  the  field  where  they  are  to  be  grown.  This  is  the  com- 
mon way  of  growing  cabbage.  Its  advantages  are  that  the  plants 
may  be  set  out  on  land  that  has  grown  some  early  crop,  as  peas, 
or  on  sod  land  after  cutting  the  hay.  It  also  ensures  having  the 
plants  all  together  in  a  small  space,  where  they  can  be  easily 
cultivated  and  guarded  when  they  are  young  and  most  liable  to 
serious  injury  from  cut  worms,  flea  beetles  and  other  insects 
and  from  dry  weather.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  the 
plants  to  be  moved  during  the  dry  weather  of  early  summer, 
when  they  are  very  liable  to  fail  from  lack  of  water  in  the  soil. 
Sowing  the  seed  of  cabbage  in  the  field  where  the  plants  are  to 
mature  and  then  thinning  out  to  one  plant  to  a  hill,  has  the 
advantage  of  not  requiring  the  transplanting  of  the  plants  during 
dry  weather,  and  as  the  plants  are  not  set  back  by  transplant- 
ing they  mature  in  a  shorter  time  than  transplanted  plants. 
This  makes  it  practicable  to  sow  the  seed  later  than  when  the 
plants  are  to  be  removed  and  is  sometimes  an  advantage.  It  has 
the  disadvantage,  however,  of  having  the  plants  scattered  over 
a  large  area  when  they  are  small  and  are  liable  to  serious  in- 
sect enemies,  and  they  are  more  difficult  to  cultivate  than  when 


148  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

in  a  seed  bed.  The  thinnings  from  the  land  where  seed  is  sown 
in  the  hill  may  be  set  elsewhere. 

Raising  Cabbage  by  Transplanting. — If  the  plants  are  to  be 
raised  in  a  seedbed  and  then  transplanted  to  the  open  ground 
the  seed  of  such  varieties  as  Late  Flat  Dutch  should  be  sown 
about  the  10th  of  May;  but  if  Fotler's  Improved  Brunswick  or 
other  second  early  kind  is  to  be  grown,  the  seed  should  not  be 
sown  until  at  least  ten  days  later;  and  such  large,  early  heading 
varieties  as  Early  Summer  may  be  successfully  raised  for  winter 
use  when  its  seed  is  sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  June.  In  any 
case  the  plants  should  be  ready  to  set  out  by  the  last  of  June, 
when  they  should  be  carefully  transplanted.  The  land  should 
be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  marked  out  three  feet  apart  each 
way,  unless  it  is  to  be  manured  in  the  hills,  when  it  should  be 
furrowed  out  one  way  and  marked  the  other  way.  The  plants 
should  be  set  at  the  intersections  of  the  marks,  but  it  is  not  a 
good  plan  to  set  them  on  top  of  the  manure,  but  rather  to  put 
them  a  little  to  one  side  of  it.  This  is  especially  important  if  the 
manure  is  not  well  rotted.  The  cultivation  and  after  treatment 
are  the  same  for  late  as  for  early  oabbage. 

Cabbage  from  Seed  Sown  in  the  Hill. — If  the  seed  is  to  be 
sown  in  the  hills,  the  land  should  be  treated  as  recommended 
when  the  plants  are  to  be  transplanted.  It  is  generally  neces- 
sary for  success  to  have  the  soil  moist  wnen  the  seed  is  sown. 
After  the  land  is  marked  out,  seven  or  eight  seeds  should  be 
sown  at  each  intersection  covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of  soil 
and  pressed  down  with  the  sole  of  the  foot.  The  plants  gen- 
erally come  up  inside  of  a  week  and  should  be  hand-hoed  at 
once,  and  when  large  enough  cultivated  with  a  horse  implement. 
When  big  enough  to  stand  alone  take  out  all  but  one  plant  from 
each  hill  and  treat  as  directed  for  those  that  have  been  trans- 
planted. 

Harvesting  Late  Cabbage  may  be  done  by  selling  directly 
from  the  field  or  by  storing  for  marketing  during  the  winter.  If 
the  heads  are  nearly  ready  to  burst  they  cannot  be  kept  long 
and  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  There  is  generally  a  good 
demand  in  the  late  autumn  for  this  vegetable  for  general  mar- 
keting and  also  by  the  pickling  factories  for  making  sauer  kraut. 
Cabbages  will  stand  ten  degrees  or  more  of  frost,  but  severe 


CABBAGE. 


U* 


,reezing  is  very  injurious;  they  are  seldom  injured  by  frost  un- 
less the  stump  is  frozen  solid.  If  there  is  danger  of  severe  freez- 
ing before  the  crop  can  be  marketed  or  stored,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  pull  the  plants  and  put  them  into  piles,  with  the  stumps  in- 
side, and  cover  the  whole  with  straw  litter.  Piled  and  covered 
this  way,  they  may  be  left  in  the  field  until  severe  freezing 
weather  and  will  generally  be  safe  in  such  a  condition  in  this 
section  until  the  first  of  December.  At  harvesting  there  may  be 
some  heads  that  are  quite  too  loose  for  marketing,  and  such  cab- 
bage will  often  improve  very  much  if  stored  as  recommended  for 
seed  cabbage. 

Storing  Cabbage. — In  order  to  have  cabbage  keep  well  fai 
into  the  winter,  they  must  not  be  headed  very  solid  when  gath- 


Figure  65.— Cabbage  pitted  for  winter. 

ered  but  should  be  a  trifle  soft,  but  there  is  quite  a  difference 
in  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  different  varieties.  If  late  varie- 
ties are  sown  too  early,  they  will  not  keep  well  and  if  early  va 
rieties  are  sown  late  so  as  to  be  in  good  keeping  condition  when 
harvested  they  often  keep  very  well.  In  order  to  store  cabbages 
successfully,  they  must  be  kept  cold  and  moist  but  never  allowed 
to  get  warm  or  wet.  Providing  the  cabbage  is  in  good  condition 
for  storing  it  will  generally  keep  until  spring  if  the  heads  are 
set  together  with  the  roots  up,  in  a  trench  and  covered  with 
from  six  inches  to  a  foot  of  soil  and  mulch  enough  to  prevent 
hard  freezing.  If  they  are  frozen  while  buried  and  thawed  out 
in  the  ground  they  are  seldom  seriously  injured.  In  this  sec- 
tion, however,  a  better  plan  is  to  keep  them  in  a  cold,  damp  cel- 
lar, stored  in  bins  about  four  feet  wide  so  as  to  allow  a  circula 
tion  of  air  through  them.    For  commercial  purposes,  it  is  a  good 


150 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


nlan  to  build  store  houses,  half  in  and  half  out  of  the  ground;  in 
a  small  way,  they  may  be  kept  by  burying  the  heads  in  sand  in 
a  cellar,  or  a  few  cabbages  for  home  use,  may  be  heeled  in  by 
the  roots  in  the  cellar — but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  de- 
caying cabbage  is  dangerous  material  to  have  under  a  dwelling 
house,  and  it  should  not  be  permitted  under  any  circumstances. 
In  storing  cabbage  the  loose  outside  leaves  should  be  removed 
and  the  stumps  always  left  on,  except  when  they  are  to  be  stored 
in  *»ns 

Cabbage  Seed  is  a  somewhat  difficult  crop  to  raise  in  this 
section,  the  trouble  being  in  keeping  the  plants  over  winter. 
However,  it  may  be  done  if  care  is  used.  For  this  purpose  heads 
should  not  be  permitted  to  get  very  hard;  they  should  be  gath- 
ered before  the  stumps  have  been  frozen  and  be  set  close  to- 
rether,  heads  up,  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  abo  it  a  foot  of 
toi*  and  mulching  enough  to  prevent  severe  freeing.     Cabbage 


Figure 


-Seed  cabbages  pitted  for  winter. 


seed  may  be  raised  from  the  stumps  after  the  heads  are  cut  off, 
and  this  is  a  very  simple  matter  as  the  stumps  can  be  buried  like 
turnips  or  even  kept  in  bins,  providing  they  are  covered  with 
earth  and  kept  cold,  but  such  seed  is  not  desirable,  as  the  evi- 
dence seems  to  show  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  the 
length  of  the  stump  at  the  expense  of  the  head  under  such  treat- 
ment. It  is  generally  agreed  among  our  best  seed  growers  that 
cabbage  seed  should  be  saved  from  the  terminal  buds  of  the 
stem  which  are  in  the  cabbage  head.  Providing  the  seed  cab- 
bage are  successfully  wintered  over,  they  should  then  be  planted 
about  the  1st  of  May  in  deep  furrows  about  three  feet  apart,  in 


CABBAGE. 


I5i 


rows  four  feet  apart.     Sometimes 


Figure  67. — Part  of  cabbage  seed 
stalk  showing  seed  pods.  (After 
Landreth). 


other  early  kinds,  since 
the  head  is  of  good 
size.  The  Early  Win- 
ningstadt  is  a  very  de- 
sirable variety,  form- 
ing very  solid  heads.  It 
is  the  most  reliable  of 
ail  varieties  for  early 
or  late  use  in  unfavor- 
able situations.  Fotler's 
Improved  Brunswick  is 
a  valuable   variety   for 


the  seed  stalk  cannot  burst 
through  the  head  leaves, 
and  it  is  a  good  plan 
where  the  outer  leaves 
are  very  thick  and  tough 
to  cut  through  the  outside 
leaves  on  the  top  of  the 
head  a  little  so  as  to  allow 
it  to  push  through.  The 
seed  is  gathered  branch 
by  branch  as  the  pods  be- 
gin to  turn  yellow,  and  it 
generally  takes  several 
cuttings  to  harvest  the 
seed  pods.  These  are 
dried  in  buildings  having 
tight  floors  and  the  seed 
is  then  threshed  out. 

Varieties.  —  For  very 
early  use  the  Early  Jer- 
sey Wakefield  is  perhaps 
the  most  popular  variety, 
but  the  head  is  quite 
small.  For  second  early 
the  Early  Summer  is  per- 
haps the  best  and  is  gen- 
erally more  profitable  than 


Figure  68. — Early  Winningstadt  cabbage 


152 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


second  early  use  or  for  winter  use,  and  it  is  the  earliest  of  the 

large  heading  kinds. 

Flat  Dutch  and  Stone  Mason  are  desirable  winter  sorts  and 

are  good  keepers.  The  best  red  cabbage  is  perhaps  the  Mam- 
moth Red  Rock.  The  Savoys 
are  of  better  quality  than  the 
ordinary  drumheads  but  do  not 
produce  so  heavily.  They  are 
desirable  for  home  use.  The 
best  of  this  class  is  the  Ameri- 
can Drumhead  Savoy. 

Insects. — The  insects  injuri- 
ous to  the  cabbage  are  the  flea 

Fig\69— Premium  flat  Dutch  cabbage,  beetle,       cabbage       worms,       cut 

worms  and  flea,  for  treatment  of  which  see  chapter  on  insects. 

Diseases. — There  are  very  few  diseases  that  seriously  injure 
the  cabbage.  The  most  common  is  club-root,  also  called  club- 
foot. The  life  history  of  this  disease  is  not  known.  It  attacks 
the  roots  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips  and  other  plants  of 
the  same  family,  causing  them  to  form  large  irregular  swell- 
ings. The  plant  is  checked  in  growth  and  often  dies  from  the 
effects  of  the  disease.  This  is  not  yet  a  common  disease  in  this 
section,  but  in  some  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  states  it  is  very 
common.  The  best  way  of  avoiding  it  is  to  not  use  the  same  land 
for  cabbage  or  similar  crop  without  at  least  three  ye^rs  interven- 
ing, during  which  time  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  land  in  grass 
or  clover.  This  disease  is  also  transmitted  by  Pepper  Cress, 
Shepherd's  Purse,  Candytuft  and  similar  plants.  This  disease 
may  also  be  distributed  in  manure  from  animals  fed  on  diseased 
plants. 

Sauer  Kraut. — The  following  recipe  for  sauer  kraut  is  a  very 
excellent  one:  Slice  cabbage  fine  in  a  slaw  cutter;  line  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  an  oaken  barrel  or  keg  with  cabbage  leaves, 
put  in  a  layer  of  the  sliced  cabbage  about  six  inches  in  depth, 
sprinkle  lightly  with  salt,  and  pound  with  a  wooden  beetle  until 
the  cabbage  is  a  compact  mass;  add  another  layer  of  cabbage, 
etc.,  repeating  the  operation,  pounding  well  each  layer  until  the 
barrel  is  full  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top;  cover  with  leaves, 
then  a  cloth,  next  a  board  cut  to  fit  loosely  on  the  inside  of  the 


CABBAGE.  153 

barrel,  kept  well  down  with  a  heavy  weight.  If  the  brine  has 
not  raised  within  two  days,  add  enough  water  with  just  salt 
enough  to  taste  to  cover  the  cabbage;  examine  every  two  days 
and  add  water  as  before,  until  brine  rises  and  scum  forms,  then 
lift  off  the  cloth  carefully  so  the  scum  may  adhere,  wash  well  in 
several  cold  waters,  wring  dry  and  replace,  repeating  this  opera- 
tion as  the  scum  arises,  at  first  every  other  day,  and  then  once 
a  week,  until  the  acetous  fermentation  ceases,  which  will  take 
three  to  six  weeks.  Up  to  this  time  keep  warm  in  the  kitchen, 
then  remove  to  a  diy,  good  cellar  unless  made  early  in  the  fall, 
when  it  may  be  at  once  set  in  the  pantry  or  cellar.  One  pint  of 
salt  to  a  full  barrel  of  cabbage  is  a  good  proportion;  some  also 
sprinkle  in  whole  black  pepper.  Or,  to  keep  until  summer:  In 
April  squeeze  out  of  brine  and  pack  tightly  with  the  hands  in 
a  stone  jar,  with  the  bottom  lightly  sprinkled  with  salt;  make 
brine  enough  to  well  cover  the  kraut  in  the  proportion  of  a  table- 
spoon of  salt  to  a  quart  of  water;  boil,  skim,  cool  and  pour  over; 
cover  with  cloth,  then  a  plate,  weight  and  another  cloth  tied 
closely  down;  keep  in  a  cool  place,  and  it  will  be  good  as  late 
as  June.  Neither  pound  nor  salt  the  cabbage  too  much,  watch 
closely  and  keep  clear  from  scum  for  good  sauer  kraut. — Buck- 
eye Cook  Book. 

Black  Rot  of  Cabbage  is  a  disease  that  has  not  attracted 
much  attention  until  the  last  few  years  but  has  during  that  time 
caused  much  damage  to  cabbage  and  cauliflower. 

The  first  indication  of  this  disease  is  upon  the  outer  leaves 
of  the  plant  which  turn  yellow  and  die  in  spots  usually  near  the 
margins.  Such  leaves  are  also  liable  to  wilt  and  careful  exami- 
nation will  show  that  the  veins  in  and  near  the  dead  areas  are 
blackened.  These  spots  enlarge  and  gradually  involve  the  whole 
leaf,  from  which  it  passes  to  the  stem  and  to  the  rest  of  the 
plant,  causing  it  to  rot.  The  dark  colored  veins  in  the  freshly 
cut  stem  and  leaves  are  the  best  indications  of  this  disease  and 
are  its  characteristic  marks. 

Cabbage  that  is  even  slightly  affected  will  not  keep,  for  this 
~ot  spreads  rapidly  in  stored  cabbage,  and  in  selecting  cabbage 
for  storage,  the  stems  and  outer  leaves  should  be  examined  for 
the  blackened  vein  so  characteristic  of  this  disease. 


154 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


The  germs  ot  the  disease  may  pass  the  winter  in  the  soi! 
and  reinfect  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips  or  similar  crops  anr" 
even  such  nearly  allied  weeds  as  Pepper  Cress  and  Shepherd's 
Purse  the  following  season.  If  diseased  cabbage  is  fed  to  stock 
the  disease  may  be  distributed  by  the  manure. 

Remedial  Measures. — In  view  of  the  above  facts,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  take  the  following  precautions:  (1)  Do  not  plant 
cabbage  a  second  year  on  land  where  the  disease  is  observed 
without  several  years  intervening,  during  which  no  nearly  allied 
crop  has  been  grown  on  it.  The  seed  bed  should  also  be  made  in 
new  soil  each  year  as  the  plants  may  become  diseased  whei- 
vary  young.  (2)  D  not  use  manure  for  cabbage  crop-?  from 
animals  that  have  \>een  fed  uncooked  diseased  cabbage.  (3> 
Since  the  disease  may  be  spread  by  insects  which  fly  from  one, 

plant  to  another,  they  should  be 
kept  in  check  as  much  as  possi 
ble.  (4)  When  the  disease  ap- 
pears the  field  should  be  gone 
over  systematically  and  all  dis- 
eased leaves  removed  and  de- 
stroyed as  soon  as  they  appear. 
If  the  disease  has  entered  the 
stem  the  whole  plant  should  be 
destroyed  This  destruction 
should  consist  of  burning  or  deep 
burial.  (5) Since  this  disease  may 
be  continued  on  Wild  Mustard, 
Pepper  Cress,  Shepherd's  Purse 
and  other  allied  plants,  they 
should  be  carefully  kept  out  of 
tand  that  has  been  once  infested  if  it  is  intended  for  cabbage. 
BRUSSELS  SPROUTS.  (Brassica  oleracea.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — This  is  one  of  the  many  varia- 
tions which  the  cabbage  has  taken  on  under  cultivation.  In  this 
case  where  the  head  of  the  cabbage  is  ordinarily  found  there  are 
loose  green  leaves  and  seldom  a  head.  The  stem  is  generally 
two  feet  or  more  high,  with  leaves,  and  at  the  base  of  each  leaf 
is  a  small  cabbage  which  seldom  attains  a  diameter  of  over  two 
Inches.     These   little   cabbages   are   the   parts   eaten;    they   are 


Figure    70. — Brussells   Sprouts. 


CAULIFLOWER.  15£" 

much  more  delicate  than  the  common  cabbage  and  highly  es- 
teemed by  many.  The  plant  requires  the  same  treatment  as  cab- 
bage except  the  plants  can  be  grown  nearer  together.  While 
easily  grown  it  is  doubtful  about  its  becoming  a  popular  vegeta- 
ble, since  in  most  of  our  markets  very  little  attention  is  paid  to 
quality,  and  the  common  cabbage  will  probably  continue  to  take 
the  place  of  this  vegetable  on  most  tables.  The  variety  most 
esteemed  is  known  as  Dwarf  Brussels  Sprouts. 

CAULIFLOWER.     (Brassica  oleracea.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — Cauliflower  is  a  form  of  cab- 
bage in  which  the  inflorescence  becomes  fleshy  and  distorted. 


Figure  71— Snowball  cauliflower. 

It  is,  however,  considered  much  more  delicate  than  cabbage  and 
brings  a  higher  price.  It  is  grown  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  cabbage;  the  plants,  however,  are  not  so  hardy  in  resisting 
cold  weather  as  cabbage,  are  more  sensitive  to  adverse  condi- 
tions and  should  have  more  manure  in  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the 
head  commences  to  form,  the  outside  leaves  of  the  plant  should 
be  drawn  together  over  the  head  so  as  to  keep  the  sunlight  away 
from  it.     Treated  in  this  way  the  heads  will  be  nearly  snow 


156  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

white,  while  if  not  protected  they  become  brown  in  color  and  are 

not  as  salable.  The  crop 
ripens  somewhat  irregu- 
larly When  danger 
of  hard  frost  is  appar- 
ent the  immature  heads 
should  be  pulled  with 
roots  and  leaves  and  be 
planted  out  in  a  cold 
cellar  or  cold  frame, 
where  many  of  them 
will  form  good  salable 
heads.  The  insect  ene- 
mies are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  cabbage. 

Varieties. — There  are 
many  varieties,  but  per- 
haps, the  most  desir- 
able  are   the    Snowball 

Figure  72.— Cauliflower  plant  with  leaves      and    the    Early    Dwarf 
tied  together  to  keep  the  sunlight  off      -rr.~fiiv+ 
the    head.     This    should    be    done    as      ^riuri. 
soon  as  the  head  can  be  seen,  and  the 
leaves    should    remain    tied    until    the 
head  is   cut  out. 

KALE,  or  BORECOLE.     (Brassica  oleracea  var.) 
Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. — Annual  or  biennial. — The  seed 
is  like  that  of  the   cabbage  or  kohl-rabi.     Under  this   head  is 
grouped  a  number  of 
vegetables  closely  re- 
lated to  the  cabbage 
and     kohl-rabi     that 
are  used  for  greens. 
None    of    them    are 
sufficiently  hardy  in 
the  extreme  north  to 
stand  out  over  winter. 
They    are    here    cul- 
tivated in  the  same 

manner  as  turnips.     In  sections  where  the  winters  are  mild,  some 
of  them  are  esteemed  for  planting  in  autumn  for  early  spring  use. 


Figure 


-Dwarf    Purple    Kale. 


KOHLRABI. 


157 


KOHL-RABI.     (Brassica  oleracea  var.) 

Kohl-rabi  has  been  derived  from  a  plant  nearly  allied  to  the 
cabbage,  and  its  seed  resembles  cabbage  seed.  Its  peculiarity  is 
its  swollen  stem  just  above  the  ground,  which  is  used  for  the 
same  purpose  and  grown  in  the  same  general  way  as  the  turnip. 

It  is  more  highly  es- 
teemed than  turnips 
for  early  summer  use 
where  well  known. 
Like  turnips  it  should 
be  sown  where  it  is 
to  mature  and  used 
when  young  and  ten- 
der. It  may  be  stored 
in  winter  like  tur- 
nips. 

Varieties.* — There 
are  small  tender  va- 
rieties especially  de- 
signed for  table  use 
and  others  that  grow 
to  large  size  and  are 
valuable  for  feeding 
stock.  Two  of  the 
best  for  table  use 
are  the  White  and 
Purple  Vienna. 


Figure   74.— Kohl-Rabi. 


TURNIP  (Brassica  napus)  and  RUTABAGA,  or  SWEDISH  TUR- 
NIP (Brassica  campestris.) 

Native  of  Europe  or  Asia. — Biennial. — Cultivated  for  their 
swollen,  fleshy  roots.  The  varieties  of  turnip  and  rutabaga  vary 
much  in  form,  size  and  color  of  the  skin,  and  the  flesh  is  white 
or  yellow,  pungent  or  slightly  acid.  There  is  more  difference  in 
the  varieties  of  the  turnip  than  of  the  rutabaga.  The  flower 
stalks  are  produced  the  second  year  and  bear  a  large  number  of 
yellow  flowers.  The  seeds  are  smooth  and  round  like  the  seed 
of  the  cabbage  and  cauliflower  and  in  similar  shaped  pods. 


158 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Turnip. — The  turnip  is  essentially  a  cold  weather  plant  and 
does  best  when  most  of  its  growth  is  made  during  the  autumn. 
It  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  spring,  but  there  is  very  little 
call  for  it  until  cool  weather. 


Figure  75. — White  Strap  Leaved  Turnip. 


Culture. — The  turnip  needs  to  be  grown  very  rapidly  to  have 
the  best  quality.  The  best  soil  for  it  is  a  friable,  rich,  sandy 
loam,  free  from  fresh  manure;  sod  land  that  has  been  recently 
broken  up  is  excellent  for  this  purpose,  but  on  old  land,  i.  e., 
that  which  has  been  cultivated  for  several  years,  or  where  there 
is  fresh  manure,  the  roots  are  often  wormy.  When  grown  for 
early  use  some  quick  maturing  kinds  should  be  planted  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  rows  fifteen  inches 
apart.  The  seed  should  be  sown  rather  thickly  and  the  seedlings 
thinned  out  two  or  three  inches  apart  after  all  danger  from  the 
flea  beetle  has  passed.  (This  insect  is  the  same  as  that  which 
attacks  the  cabbage.)  Turnips  grown  for  late  use  generally 
come  in  as  a  second  crop  after  grain,  strawberries,  early  pota- 
toes, cabbage  or  other  crop  that  is  off  the  land  by  the  first  of 
August,  since  after  this  time  a  good  crop  of  many  varieties  of 
late  turnips  will  mature  before  winter,  though  some  of  the  large 
kinds  need  to  be  sown  earlier  in  the  season.  The  seed  is  some- 
times sown  broadcast  just  before  a  shower  or  else  it  is  harrowed 


TURNIP  AND  RUTABAGA. 


159 


in.  It  is  also  grown  in  rows  about  two  feet  apart  and  cultivated 
by  a  horse  cultivator,  or  the  rows  may  be  put  nearer  together 
and  a  hand  cultivator  used. 

Varieties. — Some  of  the  best  varieties  of  turnips  are:  Early 
Flat  and  Extra  Early  Milan  for  early  use;  Red  Top  Strap  Leaf 
and  White  Egg  or  White  Globe  for  autumn  use. 

Rutabagas,  (also  called  Swedish  Turnips),  are  grown  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  common  turnips,   but  require  about  four 

weeks  longer  to  attain  edible 
size,  and,  on  this  account, 
should  be  planted  by  the  mid- 
dle of  June  or  first  of  July. 
They  are  grown  in  rows  thir- 
ty inches  apart  and  culti- 
vated with  a  horse  hoe.  Ruta- 
bagas are  sometimes  grown 
in  beds  and  transplanted,  but 
this  is  seldom,  if  ever,  done 
with  turnips. 

The  seed  of  both  turnips 
and  rutabagas  is  so  smooth 
and  fine  that  it  is  generally 
sown  too  thick.  Mixing  the 
seed  with  flour  is  a  good  way 
to  prevent  its  running  too  rapidly  through  the  seed  sower.  The 
crop  should  be  allowed  to  stay  in  the  ground  until  the  approach 
of  severe  cold  weather.  They  will  stand  some  little  freezing 
without  injury,  but  will  not  live  in  the  land  over  winter.  They 
should  be  stored  in  frost  proof  pits  or  cellars.  In  dry  cellars 
they  should  be  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  sand  or  other  ma- 
terial to  prevent  wilting.     (See  directions  for  keeping  carrots.) 

Varieties.— Improved  Purple  Top   Swede,   and  White  Rock, 
are  both  excellent  varieties  of  rutabagas. 

HORSERADISH.     (Nasturtium  armoracia.) 
Native  of  Europe.— Perennial.— Flowers  white  and  small,  in 


Figure  76— Rutabaga. 


160  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

long  clusters;   seed  vessels  small,  rounded  and  almost  always 
barren.    Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots. 

Cultivation. — This  plant  delights  in  deep,  moist  soil,  but  will 
grow  in  almost  any  situation  and  is  very  hardy.  For  home  use 
it  is  customary  to  let  it  remain  in  some  neglected  corner,  where 
it  kills  out  everything  else,  and  though  treated  in  this  way  it 
yields  sufficient  roots  for  home  use;  yet  the  roots  are  so  crowded 
that  they  are  scarcely  salable.  When  grown  as  a  market  crop 
it  is  planted  anew  each  year.  Straight  pieces  of  roots  six  or 
eight  inches  long,  called  "sets"  are  planted  about  twelve  inches 
apart,  in  rows  two  feet  apart  early  in  the  spring.  The  roots 
must  be  set  right  end  uppermost  or  they  will  not  grow  smooth 
or  straight.  An  iron  bar  is  the  most  convenient  tool  for  planting 
the  "sets."  The  top  of  the  sets  should  be  about  two  inches 
below  the  surface.  It  is  customary  to  grow  horseradish  as  a  sec- 
ond crop  after  peas  or  cabbage,  by  setting  the  roots  between 
the  rows  of  the  first  crop  and  cultivating  the  soil  without  re- 
gard to  them  until  the  first  crop  is  harvested.  It  does  not  seem 
to  hurt  horseradish  "sets"  much  if  they  are  cut  off  a  few  times 
in  cultivating  early  in  the  season.  When  the  first  crop  is  gath- 
ered the  land  is  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  the  horseradish 
plants  given  good  care.  This  plant  makes  its  greatest  growth 
in  autumn  a^d  is  dug  on  the  approach  of  winter  or  can  be  left 
until  spring.  It  must  never  be  left  two  years  on  the  same  land, 
or  else  great  labor  will  be  required  to  get  rid  of  it,  and  the  roots 
will  be  so  crooked  as  to  be  almost  unsalable.  Horseradish  is 
used  almost  entirely  after  grinding  or  grating  the  roots  and  mix- 
ing with  vinegar.  It  will  keep  for  any  length  of  time  when  thus 
prepared  and  kept  in  air-tight  packages.  It  is  also  ground  and 
dried,  and  the  young  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  greens.  The 
demand  is  limited,  though  considerable  quantities  are  sold  each 
year.  Under  some  conditions  it  is  a  paying  crop,  but  the  busi- 
ness is  very  apt  to  be  overdone.    There  are  no  varieties. 

WATER  CRESS.     (Nasturtium  officinale.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — An  aquatic  plant  with  long 
stems,  which  readily  take  root  in  moist  soil  or  water.     It  is  es- 
teemed for  use  as  a  salad  on  account  of  its  pleasant  pungent 
flavor.     Leaves  are  compound,  with  roundish  divisions;   flowers 


WATER  CRESS.  161 

small,  white,  in  terminal  spikes;    seeds,  usually  few,  very  fine, 
in  slightly  curved  pods. 

Culture. — It  can  only  be  cultivated  successfully  in  moist  sit- 
uations and  generally  does  best  along  the  edges  of  streams, 
where  it  grows  partially  in  the  water.  It  may,  however,  be 
grown  successfully  in  any  moist  soil,  even  in  a  greenhouse.  It 
is  very  hardy,  but  for  best  results  should  be  covered  with  water 
during  winter.  Most  of  the  supply  for  our  markets  comes  from 
along  the  courses  of  natural  streams.  In  Europe,  trenches  from 
16  to  20  feet  wide  for  growing  water  cress  are  often  excavated, 
into  which  running  water  may  be  turned  at  pleasure.  In  the 
bottom  of  these  trenches,  the  roots  of  the  cress  are  planted.  The 
water  is  then  let  in,  and  the  plants  are  not  interfered  with  until 
they  have  grown  strong  enough  to  yield  a  crop  of  leaves.  It  is 
often  practicable  to  make  narrow  beds  about  springs  or  slow 
running  streams  for  this  purpose. 

CRESS,  or  PEPPER  GRASS.  (Lepidium  sativum.) 
Native  of  Persia. — Annual. — An  early  spring  vegetable,  used 
as  a  salad  and  for  garnishing,  and  of  the  easiest  culture.  It 
should  be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring  in  the  hotbed  or  out- 
doors in  rows  one  foot  or  less  apart.  As  it  quickly  runs  to  seed, 
a  succession  of  sowings  should  be  made  every  eight  or  ten  days. 
It  is  only  in  demand  in  the  early  spring  or  in  winter.  It  can 
easily  be  grown  in  a  window  box  in  a  dwelling  house.  Flowers 
white  and  small;  seeds  comparatively  large. 

RADISHES.  (Raphanus  sativus.) 
Probably  a  native  of  Asia. — Annual  or,  in  the  case  of  the 
winter  radish,  biennial. — The  flower  stalks  are  branched,  about 
three  feet  high  and  have  white  or  lilac-colored  flowers,  but  never 
yellow.  The  seed  is  roundish  or  oval,  but  somewhat  flattened 
and  much  larger  than  cabbage  or  turnip  seed  and  much  more 
variable  in  size.  Some  recent  experiments  show  that  the  large 
radish  seeds  germinate  better  and  produce  marketable  roots 
sooner  and  more  uniform  in  shape  than  small  seed. 

Culture. — The  radish  is  a  vegetable  of  very  easy  culture. 
The  roots  of  some  kinds  reach  edible  size  in  three  weeks  when 
grown  in  best  conditions  and  are  a  favorite  vegetable  of  early 


162 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


spring.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  sow  the  seed  of  early  kinds 
in  hotbeds  between  rows  of  lettuce  and  outdoors  between,  or  in 
the  rows  of  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  etc.  They  will  grow  in  al- 
most any  soil,  but  new  land  is  best  for  them.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  and  if 
sowings  are  made  once  every  two  weeks  thereafter  a  succession 
of  tender  roots  may  be  had. 

Winter  radishes  are  grown  and  stored  in  the  same  manner 
and  fully  as  easily  as  turnips.     The  seed  is  sown  in  June  or  July. 

and  the  roots  gath- 
ered in  autumn  and 
stored  in  cellars  or 
pitted  outdoors.  They 
keep  very  well.  Win- 
ter radishes  closely 
resemble  the  er.rly 
kinds  in  quality,  but 
are  firmer  in  texture. 
Thecabbage  flea  bee- 
tle affects  the  young 
radish  plants  in  the 
late  spring  and  sum- 
mer. (See  chapter 
on  insects  for  reme- 
dies.) The  roots  are 
sometimes  infested 
with  maggots,  but 
these  are  seldom 
troublesome     except 

where  fresh  manure 
Figure  77.— White  Strasburg  Radish.  jg    uged    Qr    in    land 

where  radishes  have  been  grown  for  several  years.  It  is  best 
not  to  manure  the  land  for  radishes  but  use  rich  soil  that  has 
been  put  in  good  order  by  some  previous  crop. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  kinds,  differing  from  each  other 
in  color,  form,  size  time  of  maturity  and  taste.  They  are  gen- 
erally divided  into  early  or  forcing  varieties,  summer  and  au- 


RADISHES.  163 

tumn  varieties  and  winter  kinds.    A  few  of  each  are  here  men- 
tioned: 

French  Breakfast. — One  of  the  best  very  early  radishes  for 
the  market,  but  small.  It  remains  in  good  condition  for  only  a 
short  time,  consequently  is  not  desirable  for  the  home  garden. 

Early   White   Tipped   Scarlet  Turnip  Shaped.— A  handsome, 

round,     early,     popular 


radish, 
quickly. 


maturing    very 


Early  Deep  Scarlet. 
— Very  early,  round  and 
of  deep  scarlet  color. 

Long  Scarlet  Short 
Top. — A  well  known  de- 
sirable early  kind  hav- 
I        ing  long  scarlet  roots. 

White  Strasburg. — 
One  of  the  finest  half 
long  kinds  for  summer 
use.      Grows     to    good 

Figure  78—  French  Breakfast  Radish.  .  ...  -    .        , 

size;  white  and  tender. 

Rose.— The  most  popular  of  the  winter  sorts.  Skin  pink. 

Black  Spanish.— Skin  very  black,  flesh  white,  firm,  tender 
but  very  pungent.     A  good  winter  sort. 

THE  CLOVER  FAMILY.  (Order  Leguminosae.) 
The  Clover  family  is  made  up  of  trees,  shrubs  or  herbs 
which  with  few  exceptions  have  a  butterfly-shaped  corolla,  10 
stamens,  9  of  which  are  generally  grown  together.  The  fruit 
is  known  as  a  legume  and  is  a  pod  that  opens  like  the  pea  or 
bean  pods.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  chiefly  compound,  and 
have  stipules.  Besides  the  beans  and  peas,  whose  cultural  di- 
rections are  here  given,  the  following  are  members  of  this  fam- 
ily: Clovers,  Vetch,  Alfalfa  and  Lupine  among  farm  crops,  and 
the  Common  Locust.  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree,  Honey  Locust  and 
Yellow  Wood  among  trees. 


164 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Annual.  The  common  beans  in  this  country  are  natives  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  South  America.  They  are  sometimes  re- 
ferred  to   as   kidney   or   French   beans    (P.   vulgaris).     Besides 

these,   the   Lima   beans 
(P.    lunatus)    are   culti- 
vated  to   a   limited    ex- 
tent. The  common  broad 
bean    of    Europe    is   an 
entirely  different  vege- 
table   from    the    kinds 
generally     grown     here 
and    is   not  sufficiently 
prolific   in   this    section 
to    make    it   worthy    of 
cultivation.     There    are 
many  varieties  of  beans, 
and  the  varieties  of  each 
species     readily     cross 
together,     the     flowers 
being   especially  adapt- 
ed   to    crossing.     They 
vary  from  one  another 
in  many  particulars;  some  are  low,  bushy  and  erect,  while  others 
are  twining  and  have  stems  that  grow  ten  or  more  feet  in  a  season. 
There  are  many  gradations  between  these  extremes,  as  well 
as   in   size,   color   and    shape   of   seed    and   plant.     The   twining 
stem  kinds  always  twine  from  right  to  left  around  any  support 
they  can  lay  hold  of.     Horticulturally,  beans  are  divided  into  the 
bush  and  pole  varieties.     Under  the  first  class  are  included  all 
the  field  varieties  that  are  grown  to  be  used  as  shelled  beans  and 
some  snap  and  string  beans.    They  have  stout,  erect  or  slightly 
running   stems.      Under   pole    beans   are   classed    all   the   kinds 
that  have  twining  stems  and  which  are  benefited  by  having  sup- 
port of  some  kind.    There  are,  however,  dwarf  bunch  beans  hav- 
ing the  same  general  features  as  the  pole  kinds  except  the  tall 
stem.     While    this    division    is    by    no    means    distinct,    yet   the 
methods  of  cultivation  adapted  to  each  growth  are  different.     AH 


Figure    79. — Bush    Bean. 


BEANS.  165 

beans  are  quite  tender  and  should  not  be  planted  untiil  the  soil 
is  warm  and  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  They  are  sown  for  early- 
use  about  the  time  for  general  corn  planting.  For  the  main  crop 
they  should  be  planted  about  the  first  of  June. 

Bush  Beans. — These  are  very  easily  grown  and  are  adapted 
to  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  For  a  field  crop  on  a  large  scale, 
the  seed  is  generally  sown  with  a  horse  drill  or  with  a  hand 
garden  drill,  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  It  is  sometimes  best  to 
mark  out  the  land  first  and  then  follow  with  the  drill  in  the 
marks.  Seed  should  be  sown  two  or  three  inches  deep.  On  a 
smaller  scale,  the  land  may  be  furrowed  out  with  a  one-horse 
plow  or  with  a  wheel  hoe  and  the  seed  sowed  by  hand.  After 
culture  consists  in  keeping  the  land  well  cultivated  with  a  horse 
hoe  and  free  from  weeds.  Varieties  of  dwarf  beans  for  use  in  a 
green  state,  such  as  string  or  snap  beans,  may  be  sown 
at  any  time  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of  August 
and  with  good  prospects  of  a  good  crop  of  green  pods  even  at 
the  latter  date.  Some  kinds  have  edible  pods  in  less  than  six 
weeks  from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown. 

Harvesting  Beans. — For  use  in  a  green  state,  the  pods  of 
some  kinds  of  beans  are  picked  as  soon  as  large  enough  to  use 
and  when  they  are  tender  and  fresh;  in  other  cases  the  beans 
are  used  when  still  fresh,  but  not  until  they  are  large  enough 
to  shell  from  the  pods.  Field  beans  are  harvested  by  being 
pulled  by  hand  or  gathered  with  a  bean  gatherer  when  they  are 
ripe,  laid  in  rows  until  dry  enough  for  threshing,  then  threshed 
at  once  or  stored  for  threshing  later  on.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  storing  the  pods  to  prevent  molding  of  the  beans,  and 
in  threshing  nov  to  break  the  beans.  In  a  small  way  beans 
may  be  threshed  out  by  hand,  but  on  a  large  scale  any  common 
threshing  machine  may  be  used,  providing  suitable  changes  are 
made  in  it  so  it  will  not  break  the  beans. 

Varieties  of  Bush  Beans.— There  are  many  varieties  of  bush 
beans  having  desirable  qualities,  but  only  a  few  of  the  most 
valuable  are  mentioned  here: 

Field  Beans.— White  Marrow,  Burlingame  Medium,  Navy  and 
Snowflake. 


166 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Waxen  Podded  Beans. — Dwarf  Golden  Wax  and  Dwarf  Black 
Wax. 

Shell  and  String  Beans.— Yellow  Six  Weeks,  Early  Mohawk, 
Cranberry  and  Dwarf  Horticultural. 

Japanese,  Soy  or  Soja  Beans. — These  are  easily  grown,  but 
on  account  of  their  inferior  quality  are  not  much  used  here. 

Dwarf  Lima  Beans  are  highly  esteemed  by  those  who 
know  them  and,  although  smaller  in  size  than  the  pole  Limas, 
are  supplanting  them  in  this  section  and  coming  into  quite  gen- 
eral use,  on  account  of  their  being  more  certain  to  mature  well 

and  requiring  less  labor  in  cul- 
tivation. They  require  the  same 
methods  of  cultivation  as  other 
dwarf  beans  but  should  not  be 
planted  until  the  land  is  thor- 
oughly warmed.  The  best  va- 
rieties are  known  as  Hender- 
son's Dwarf,  Durpee's  Dwarf, 
Jackson  Wonder  (black  spotted) 
and  Kumerle  Dwarf  Lima.  The 
common  dwarf  shell  beans  are 
early,  productive  and  good,  but 
not  so  rich  in  quality  as  these. 

Pole  Beans. — The  twiningva- 
rieties  of  beans  are  little  grown 
in  this  section,  as  the  improved 
dwarf  kinds  take  their  place 
to  a  great  extent.  However,  tall  Lima  beans  are  highly  esteemed 
by  many  and  the  dwarf  varieties  of  this  class  are  not  so  desirable 
as  the  pole  kinds.  There  is  also  a  demand  for  such  shell  beans 
as  the  pole  Horticultural,  Cranberry  and  Caseknife  varieties. 
Pole  beans  require  stronger  land  than  do  the  dwarf  kinds.  The 
ordinary  way  of  growing  pole  beans  is  to  set  poles  six  feet  long 
in  hills  four  feet  apart  e&eh  way.  It  is  customary  to  put  a  shovel- 
ful of  good  compost  or  rotted  manure  in  each  hill  if  the  land  is 
poor.  Seed  should  not  be  planted  till  the  ground  is  quite  warm— 
the  pole  varieties  are  more  particular  in  this  respect  than  the 
dwarf  kinds.     About  six  seeds  should  be  planted  two  or  three 


Figure  80— Dwarf  L,ima  beans. 


BEANS. 


167 


inches  deep  around  each  pole.  In  the  case  of  Lima  beans  the 
general  belief  is  that  the  beans  should  be  planted  edgeways  with 
the  eye  downwards,  but  good  results  are  often  obtained  by 
sowing  the  seeds  without  regard  to  this  matter.  This  latter 
method  is  customary  in  sowing  the  dwarf  Lima,  and  some  who 
sow  the  large  Lima  beans  in  furrows  and  train  them  to  trellises 
pay  no  regard  to  the  position  of  the  seed  in  the  soil,  but  sow  an 
abundance  of  seed  so  as  to  be  sure  of  a  good  stand.  Lima  beans 
are  generally  shelled  by  hand  when  fresh  but  full  grown  and 
are  sold  by  the  quart.  In  warm  climates  they  are  sold  in  large 
quantities  after  being  dried.  The  Cranberry  and  Horticultural 
kinds  are  generally  sold  in  the  pod.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings 
commence  to  "run,"  it  is  customary  to  assist  them  in  getting 
started,  and  some  seasons  it  is  necessary  to  tie  the  Lima  beans 
to  the  poles  until  they  are  well  started.  Lima  beans  require  an 
extra  warm  location  and  soil. 


Beans  may  be  Transplanted  if  removed  with  much  care  when 
the  soil  is  moist.     Some  very  successful  gardeners  find  that  it 

pays  them  to  start  their  pole  Lima 
beans  on  pieces  of  sod  or  in  pots 
or  boxes  in  hotbeds  and  in  this 
way  they  advance  the  period  of 
ripening  two  weeks  or  more.  This 
is  a  very  desirable  practice  with 
pole  Lima  beans  in  this  climate, 
since  the  short  season  often  fails  to 
mature  much  of  the  crop  when  the 
seed  is  planted  in  the  open  ground. 
The  varieties  of  pole  Lima  beans 
best  adapted  to  this  section  are 
probably  the  Large  Lima  and 
Dreer's  Lima;  both  of  these  are  of 
fine  quality  and  productive.  The 
small     Lima     or     Sieva     bean     is 

Figure  81-Anthracnose  of  bean      5arlier    than    those    mentioned    but 
pod.  Df  inferior  quality. 


Preserving  Beans  in  Salt. — String  beans  are  easily  preserved 


168  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

in  salt  for  winter  use,  using  about  seven  pounds  to  the  bushel 

of  pods.  In  doing  this  the  fresh 
tender  pods  are  put  at  once  into  the 
brine  as  they  come  from  the  field. 
When  wanted  for  use,  they  should 
be  freshened  out  and  cooked  in  the 
ordinary  way.  They  are  very  good, 
and  are  nearly  as  desirable  as  the 
best  canned  beans. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Beans  are 
quite  free  from  the  attacks  of  any 
injurious  insects  or  diseases.  An- 
thracnose  of  the  bean  (Gloeospori- 
um  lindemuthianum)  shows  itself 
by  black  spots  on  the  stems  or  pods 
or  both.  It  is  sometimes  very  in- 
jurious in  moist  weather,  but  only 
in  occasional  years  have  we  any- 
thing to  fear  from  it.  It  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  profitable  to  ise 
any  of  the  fungicides,  such  as  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  which  would  read- 
ily prevent  it.  Beans  grown  in  lo- 
cations where  there  is  a  good  cir- 
culation  of   air   are   less  liable   to 


Figure  82— Nott's  Excelsior  pea. 


injury  than  those  protected  from  a  good  circulation  of  air. 

PEAS.     (Pisum  sutivum.) 

The  pea  is  an  annual  plant  of  uncertain  origin,  but  probably 
a  native  of  central  Europe.  The  flowers  are  either  white  or 
violet  colored,  but  the  most  desirable  garden  kinds,  almost  with- 
out exception,  bear  white  flowers. 

Varieties  of  peas  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those  having 
wrinkled  seed,  those  having  round,  small  seed,  and  those  having 
edible  pods.  Wrinkled  seeded  varieties  do  not  germinate  as 
well  as  the  smooth  skinned  or  round  sorts,  nor  do  their  germinat- 
ing powers  last  so  long,  nor  are  they  so  hardy  in  resisting  the 
adverse  conditions  of  early  spring.  On  account  of  the  latter 
reason,  gardeners  plant  the  round  seed  first  in  the  spring,  and 


PEAS.  169 

do  not  plant  the  wrinkled  kinds  until  the  soil  is  in  best  condi- 
tion and  somewhat  warm.  The  wrinkled  kinds  are  better  in 
quality  than  the  round  and  smooth  varieties.  Peas  having 
edible  pods  are  not  popular  in  this  country,  probably  because  of 
the  ease  with  which  string  beans  are  grown. 

Culture. — Peas   may  be   grown   successfully   in   almost   any 
good  soil;  they  even  do  well  on  rather  poor  soil.     The  kinds  hav- 
ing smooth  seeds  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked  in  the  spring — even  a  hard  freeze  does  not  hurt  the 
plants  as  they  are  coming  out  of  the  ground,  and  they  will  stand 
considerable  frost  when  well  up     The  distance  between  the  rows 
and  the  seeds  in  the  row  depend    somewhat  on  the  kinds  grown. 
Some    kinds    branch    out    far    more    than    others     and,     con- 
sequently,     need      more      room      in      the      row.        They      also 
vary     in     length     of     stem      from     a     few      inches      to      six 
or  seven  feet.     The   tall  kinds  require  the  rows  to  be  five  or 
six  feet  apart,   while   dwarf  varieties  are  generally  planted   in 
rows  thirty  inches  to  three  feet  apart.    The  growing  of  tall  kinds 
is  mostly  confined  to  private  gardens,  where  it  is  customary  to 
use  brush  or  other  material  in  the  rows  for  support.    Formerly, 
among  tall  varieties,  were  those  far  excelling  in  quality  any- 
thing found  among  those  of  a  dwarf  habit,  but  recent  introduc- 
tions of  the  latter  kinds  have  shown  a  great  improvement  in 
quality,   until  now  the  dwarf  sorts  are  generally  grown,   even 
by    the   most    fastidious.      In   common    practice,    the    seed    is 
sown  about  four  inches  deep,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  putting 
about  ten  seeds  to  each  foot  of  row.    It  is  best  to  sow  plenty  of 
seed  in  order  to  secure  a  good  stand.     The  land  should  be  well 
cultivated  between  the  rows.     Unleached  wood  ashes  or  some 
other  fertilizer  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  is  most  bene- 
ficial for  this  crop.     As  it  belongs  to  the  leguminous  section  of 
plants,  it  is  a  nitrogen  producer  and,  consequently,  does  not  need 
much  nitrogen  in  the  soil.    Early  peas  as  generally  grown  are  out 
of  the  way  in  time  to  allow  the  land  to  be  used  for  late  cabbage 
or  string  beans.    When  it  is  desired  to  extend  the  season  of  table 
peas,  successive  showings  should  be  made  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks,  up  to  the  tenth  of  June.    During  the  summer  the  vines  are 
too  liable  to  mildew  to  make  late  spring  planting  successful. 
The  pea  is  distinctively  a  cool  weather  plant  and  on  this  account 


170  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

it  will  often  do  well  when  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  for 
use  in  autumn. 

The  Canning  of  Peas  is  an  important  industry  in  some  sec- 
tions and  could  be  more  generally  introduced  into  this  section  to 
advantage.  In  sowing  peas  for  canneries  it  is  the  practice  in 
some  sections  t-  sow  them  with  a  common  grain  drill,  leaving  a 
path  between  each  strip  for  the  pickers. 

Varieties. — Of  the  many  varieties  only  a  few  of  the  best  are 
referred  to  here.  For  very  early  use,  almost  every  seedman  has  a 
strain  of  smooth,  round  peas,  which  he  sends  out  under  his  own 
peculiar  name.  The  early  sorts  are  generally  derived  from  the 
old  Daniel  O'Rourke,  and  among  them  are  varieties  known  as  the 
First  and  Best,  Earliest  of  All  and  Improved  Extra  Early.  As  a 
rule,  these  should  be  used  for  first  planting  only,  to  be  followed 
by  plantings  of  the  wrinkled  sorts. 

American  Wonder  is  a  very  dwarf  early  pea  of  unsur- 
passed quality  and  very  hardy  for  a  wrinkled  sort.  A  rich  soil 
and  extra  cultivation  are  required  to  get  the  best  results  from  it. 
If  only  one  variety  is  to  be  grown,  this  is  perhaps  the  best  to 
plant. 

Stratagem. — Very  productive  and 
justly  very  popular,  having  remark- 
ably large  pods  filled  with  rich,  sweet 
peas.  It  does  better  on  light  than  on 
heavy  soils. 

Yorkshire  Hero. — An  excellent, 
variety. 

Marrowfat. — Among  the  most  pop 
ular  of  the  old  varieties. 

Champion  of  England. — A  tall 
growing,  popular  sort,  of  best  quality, 
that  does  best  when  supported  by 
brush  or  wire  netting.     Late. 


Figure  83— Dwarf  Okra. 


Telephone. — Of   excellent   quality. 
Pods    and   seeds  large.       One  of  the 
most  productive  and,  consequently,  very  popular.     Late. 


OKRA.  171 

Bliss's  Abundance. — Half-dwarf,  branching,  of  excellent  qual- 
ity and  very  productive.    Late. 

Nott's  Execlsior. — A  new,  very  productive,  early  dwarf  va- 
riety that  is  becoming  very  popular,  and  in  some  sections  much 
preferred  to  the  American  Wonder. 


THE  MALLOW  FAMILY.  (Order  Malvaceae.) 
The  mallow  family  is  known  by  its  numerous  stamens  which 
have  their  filaments  grown  together  and  are  attached  to  the  base 
of  the  petals.  The  petals  are  twisted  together  in  the  bud.  Seeds 
kidney-shaped.  Herbs  or  shrubs  mucilaginous  with  very  tough 
fibrous  bark,  none  of  them  poisonous.  Okra  is  the  only  plant 
of  this  family  which  is  frequently  grown  in  gardens,  but  the 
common  cotton  plant  also  belongs  here  as  well  as  the  abutilon 
mallow,  hibiscus,  althaea  and  hollyhock  of  our  gardens. 


OKRA.     (Hibiscus  esculentus.) 

Native  of  South  America. — Annual. — The  seed  is  round  and 
of  medium  size.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  green  seed  pods,  which 
are  highly  esteemed  for  soup.  Little  grown  except  at  the  south. 
It  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  The  seed  should  be  sown  about  two 
inches  apart  in  rows  two  feet  apart  and  in  rich,  warm  soil,  at 
about  the  time  for  planting  beans.  The  pods  are  produced  abun- 
dantly but  are  perhaps  not  as  tender  when  grown  in  our  dry 
atmosphere  as  they  are  in  the  south.  The  flowers  are  large,  yel- 
low and  very  pretty. 

The  varieties  known  as  Dwarf  Green  and  Long  Green  are 
best  for  our  climate. 


THE  PARSNIP  FAMILY.     (Order  umbelliferae.) 

The  parsnip  family  is  made  up  of  herbaceous  plants  come 
of  which  are  aromatic  and  others  that  are  acid-narcotic  poisons. 


172  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

The  flowers  are  small  and  generally  arranged  in  compound  um- 
bels;   no  calyx,  but  in  place  often  have  five  minute  teech,  five 

petals,  five  stamens  and 
two  pistils.  The  dry  fruit 
usually  splits  into  two 
parts  and  the  seed  of  most 
species  has  oil  tubes.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  and 
more  commonly  compound 
or  decompound.  Besides 
the  parsnips,  parsley,  car- 
rot, celery,  whose  cultural 
directions  are  here  given, 
dill,  anise,  caraway,  cori- 
ander and  fennel  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of 
garden  herbs. 


PARSNIPS. 
(Pastinaca  sativa.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Bien- 
nial.— Cultivated  for  its 
long,  tender  root.  Seeds 
light  brown  in  color,  flat 
and  marked  with  five  rais- 
ed lines  or  ridges.  Seed 
stalks  three  to  five  feet 
high  with  large  umbels  of  greenish  flowers. 

Culture. — The  parsnip  is  grown  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
carrot,  but  is  rather  more  particular  about  the  soil  on  which  it 
grows.  Then,  too,  in  manuring  the  land  for  this  crop,  it  is 
important  to  use  only  manure  which  is  well  rotted,  as  the  ap- 
plication of  fresh  manure  seems  to  encourage  the  formation  of 
side  roots.  Also  on  hard  land,  there  is  often  a  tendency  for  the 
roots  to  form  side  roots,  ana,  as  what  ie  desired  is  a  rather 
thick  tap  root,  side  roots  are  to  be  avoided.     It  is  important  «*- 


Figure   84. — Parsnip   plant   in   flower, 


PARSNIPS.  173 

sow  the  seed  early  and  quite  thick  and  then  to  thin  out  in  order 
to   be   sure   of  having   a   good   stand   of 
plants.    The  seed  germinates  rather  slow- 
ly.    It  is  a  very  hardy  crop  and  may  be 
left  in  the  ground  until  late  autumn  or 
even  over  winter.     In  fact,  many  believe 
that  freezing  parsnips  in  the  ground  im- 
proves their  quality.    They  may  be  safely 
pitted  outdoors  by  putting  them  in  heaps, 
covering   with   a   few    inches   of   hay   or 
straw  and  then  a  foot  of  earth.  Treated  in 
this  way,     they  can  be  taken  out  at  any 
time  during  the  winter  or  early  spring. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  leave  the  crop  in 
the  ground  over  winter,  since  it  cannot 
then  be  dug  out  until  the  frost  is  out  of 
the  ground  in  the  spring,  by  which  time 
the  demand  for  parsnips  will  have  consid- 
erably lessened.     If  kept  in  an  ordinary 
cellar,  they  should  be  covered  with  earth 
or  sand  to  prevent  wilting. 

In  marketing  the  parsnip,  it  is  often 
customary  after  trimming  off  all  side 
shoots,  to  sell  them  by  the  basket  without  washing^  A  :ar  bet- 
ter and  more  equitable  plan  is  to  sell  them  by  weigh  In  some 
of  the  best  markets,  the  roots,  after  ^\c^^J^e 
and  trimmed,  are  packed  evenly  in  boxes  sixteen  inches  square 
and  eight  inches  deep,  which  hold  just  a  bushel.  Packed  m  this 
way,  they  present  a  very  neat  appearance. 

The  Hollow  Crown  or  Student  Parsnip  is  the  best  kind  to 
grow  for  table  use. 

Turnip  Rooted  Parsnip,  which  is  short  and  round,  is  used 
to  some  extent.  It  is  a  good  form  on.  light  soils,  but  for  rich  land 
the  Hollow  Crown  is  to  be  preferred. 

PARSLEY.     (Carum   petroselinum.) 
Native  of  Sardinia-Biennial.-The  leaves  of  some  varieties 
of  this  plant  are  used  in  a  fresh  state  for  garnishing  and  sea- 
soning, and  in  the  case  of  a  few  kinds  the  fleshy  roots  are  used.  In 


Figure  85— Hollow 
Crown  Parsnip. 


174 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


habit  of  growth  parsley  resembles  the  parsnip,  to  which  it  is 
closely  related.  The  leaves,  however,  are  variously  cut  and  di- 
vided.    A  few  varieties  are  grown  for  their  fleshy  roots. 

Culture. — Parsley  is  grown  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the 
parsnip,  and,  like,  it,  its  seed  germinates  rather  slowly.  The 
seed  is  often  sown  for  winter  and  early  spring  use  in  green- 
houses and  hotbeds.  The  leaves  may  be  used  as  soon  as  big 
enough.     The  roots  may  be  taken  up  in  autumn  and  grown  in  a 

greenhouse  or  in 
a  box  in  a  sunny 
window  for  a 
winter  supply. 
The  demand  is 
quite  limited.  It 
is  sold  in  small 
bunches  and  may 
be  found  in  the 
larger  markets  at 
any  season  of  the 

Figure  86.— Fine  curled  parsley.  year.        It   seldom 

comes  through  our  winters  safely  when  left  exposed  outdoors 
but  sometimes  does  so  when  well  protected. 

The  Varieties  commonly  grown  are  the  Double  Curled  and 
Fine  Leaved,  either  of  which  makes  a  border  that  is  pretty  enough 
for  a  flower  garden,  and  it  is  often  used  as  an  edging  for  small 
kitchen  gardens. 

CARROTS.  (Daucus  carota.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — In  the  wild  state  this  root  is 
valueless,  being  slender  and  woody,  and  the  plant  is  a  bad  weed. 
LTnder  cultivation  it  exhibits  the  widest  difference  in  shape,  size 
and  color.  Some  kinds  have  roots  that  are  broader  thai  long 
and  extend  not  over  two  or  three  inches  in  the  ground,  while 
others  attain  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  still  others  may  be  found 
having  the  various  intermediate  forms  between  these  extremes. 
There  are  also  varieties  having  red,  white  and  yellow  flesh.  The 
leaves  are  very  much  divided  and  deeply  cut.  The  flowers  are 
white  and  crowded  together  in  compound  umbels  on  stalks  two  to 
five  feet  high.     The  roots  of  the  cultivated  kind  will  stand  con- 


CARROT. 


175 


siderable  frost,  but  not  severe  freezing.  Two  seeds  are  pro- 
duced by  each  flower;  they  are  fiat  on  one  side  and  convex  on 
the  other,  and  are  partly  covered  jy  minute  bristles.  When  sold, 
the  bristles  have  generally  been  removed.  Carrots  are  used  to 
some  extent  as  a  table  vegetable,  but  they  are  especially  valuable 
as  a  food  for  horses  and  other  stock. 


Cultivation. — The    carrot    is    of   the    easiest   culture.     It   re- 
quires a  fine  mellow,  rich,  upland  soil.     On  moist  land  the  roots 

are  apt  to  branch  and 
are  much  liable  to  dis- 
ease.     The      seedlings 
are  quite  delicate  when 
they  first  come  up  and 
every  precaution  should 
be    taken    to    have   the 
land  clean,  so  that  the 
small  seedlings  will  not 
be  overrun  with  weeds; 
the  surface  soil  should 
be  kept  loose  and  mel- 
low throughout  the  sea- 
son.    It  is  a  good  plan 
to    sow    a    few    radish 
seeds    with    the    carrot 
seed  so  that  cultivation 
may      be      commenced 
early,     as     the     latter 
start    slowly.       If     the 
seed  of  the  small  kinds 
are  sown  very  early  in 
spring    they    will    pro- 
duce    roots     big    enough     for    table    use     by     early     summer; 
but  for  the  main  crop  the  seed  should  be  sown  about  the  middle 
of  May  in  rows  fourteen  inches  apart.     A  fair  crop  may  be  ex- 
pected even  if  the  seed  is  not  sown  until  the  middle  of  June, 
although  the  dry  weather  which  generally  prevails  at  that  time 
of  the  year  is  liable  to  prevent  or  retard  the  germination  of  the 
seed  or  to  burn  up  the  seedlings  just  as  they  are  pushing  out 


Figure  87— Carrot  plant  in  flower. 


176 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


of  the  ground.  The  crop  is  sometimes  sown  in  rows  two  feet 
apart  and  cultivated  with  a  horse  implement.  If  the  seed  is  good, 
two  pounds  per  acre,  or  about  fourteen  seeds  to  the  foot  of  row, 
is  plenty  to  sow.  Very  thick  seeding  is  not  desirable,  as  the  cost 
of  thinning  in  such  a  case  is  considerable.  It  is  best  for  the 
experienced  grower  to  have  all  the  conditions  just  right  and 
then  to  sow  the  seed  so  that  little,  if  any,  thinning  will  be  neces- 
sary. However,  the  beginner  will  very  likely  find  it  safest  to  sow 
a  large  amount  of  seed,  perhaps  three  pounds  per  acre,  and  thin 
out  so  that  the  plants  will  stand  three  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
The  richer  the  soil  the  more  room  the  roots  require  in  the  row; 
if  small  roots  are  wanted  they  may  be  left  an  inch  apart  in  the 
row. 

Gathering. — One  of  the  greatest  outlays  in  raising  carrots 
is  in  gathering  and  topping  the  crop.     The  topping  may  be  done 


Figure  88.— Harvesting  long  carrots  and  parsnips  by  plowing  the  eartti  iway  on 
one  side,  and  then  pulling  the  roots  by  hand. 

by  hand,  after  being  plowed  out,  but  hand  labor  is  very  costly. 
Some  growers  go  over  the  rows  and  cut  the  tops  off  with  a  sharp 
hand  hoe.  If  the  tops  of  the  roots  are  cut  off  a  little  no  harm  is 
done,  as  it  does  not  increase  the  liability  to  rot  as  is  the  case 
with  beets.  The  roots  are,  perhaps,  most  easily  dug  by  plowing 
close  to  each  row  and  then  pulling  them  out  by  hand.  For  this 
purpose  a  subsoil  plow  is  best,  but  any  good  plow  will  answer 
the  purpose  fairly  well.     If  a  short  rooted  variety  is  grown  and 


CARROT.  177 

the  land  is  mellow,  the  plow  may  often  be  run  so  as  to  turn  the 
roots  out  on  top  of  the  furrow  slice. 

Storing. — Carrots    are    easily    kept    over    winter    in    cellars 


Figure  89.— Varieties  of  Carrots.  1  -White  Belgian.  2— Long  Orange. 
3— Orange  Danvers.  4— Ox-Heart.  5— Pointed-Rooted.  6— Blunt- 
Rooted    Horn.     7— Extra    Early    Forcing.     (After  Landreth.) 

providing  they  are  in  a  temperature  near  the  freezing  point  and 
are  not  too  ripe  when  dug.  If  the  seed  has  been  planted  too 
early,  the  roots  will  ripen  up  early  in  the  fall  and  will  cease  to 
grow,  and  many  of  the  leaves  will  turn  yellow.  Such  roots  do 
not  keep  well,  but  are  liable  to  sprout  badly  long  before  spring, 


178  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

even  if  kept  cold.  To  have  the  roots  keep  best  they  should  be 
growing  rapidly  when  dug.  In  dry  cellars,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  cover  with  loam  or  sand  to  prevent  those  on  top  of  the  bin  or 
pile  from  wilting.  If  they  are  to  be  fed  early  in  the  winter,  they 
may  perhaps  be  piled  in  the  barn  and  covered  with  chaff  and 
straw  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  frost  until  used. 

Carrot  seed  is  raised  by  planting  out  the  roots  in  the  spring, 
about  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  The  seed  heads 
ripen  irregularly  and  are  gathered  as  they  ripen  and  threshed 
when  dry.  The  seed  is  generally  rubbed  against  a  sieve  having  a 
fine  mesh  to  take  the  bristles  off,  otherwise  it  would  be  a  difficult 
matter  to  sow  it  in  a  machine. 

The  forcing  of  carrots  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent,  for 
which  purpose  they  may  be  sown  between  rows  of  radishes  in 
the  hotbed  or  greenhouse. 

Varieties. — For  very  early  table  use  the  Short  Scarlet  is  best. 
For  general  use  in  summer  and  for  winter  use,  perhaps  there 
is  no  better  variety  than  the  Danvers.  The  Guerande  Half 
Long,  or  Oxheart,  is  a  variety  that  is  very  thick  and  short  and 
yields  nearly  as  much  as  the  Danvers.  It  has  the  advantage, 
moreover,  of  being  easily  pulled  by  hand  without  any  digging. 
The  White  Belgian  is  a  large  cropper,  but  only  of  value  as  food 
for  stock.  Thirty  tons  of  carrots  are  sometimes  raised  on  one 
acre,  but  in  ordinary  practice  seldom  more  than  half  that  amount 
is  raised. 

CELERY.     (Apium  graveolens.) 

Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — The  plants  are  grown  for  the 
fleshy  leaf  stalks,  which  are  very  tender  when  blanched;  one 
form  is  also  grown  for  the  large  fleshy  roots.  The  whole  plant 
has  a  pleasant  aromatic  flavor.  The  seed  stalks  are  branching 
and  grow  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  have  very  small  yel- 
lowish or  greenish  flowers  in  compound  umbels.  The  seed  is 
small,  triangle  and  five-ribbed,  having  the  characteristic  aro- 
matic flavor  of  the  plant. 

Celery  is  a  crop  that  is  very  liable  to  suffer  from  the  want 
of  rich,  nitrogenous  manures  and  from  a  superabundance  of  or 
a  lack  of  moisture  in  the   soil.     On  this  account  it  should  be 


CELERY.  179 

grown  on  retentive,  yet  well  drained,  rich  land.  Well  drained 
bog  land  with  the  water  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  surface  is 
often  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

Early  Celery.— The  seed  for  early  celery  is  generally  sown 


Figure  90— Celery  plants.  Those  on  left  have  been  transplanted  and 
show  in  consequence  an  improved  root  system  for  planting  out. 
ihose  on  right  were  only  grown  in  seed  bed  without  transplanting 
and  have  not  as  good  roots  for  planting  out.  The  plants  with  tops 
trimmed  are  ready  for  planting  out. 

the  latter  part  of  February  or  early  in  March  in  boxes  in  a  green- 


180  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

house.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  of  sufficient  size  to  handle 
well,  they  are  pricked  out  into  other  boxes  or  into  hotbeds,  where 
they  remain  until  large  enough  for  planting  out,  which  is  some- 
time in  May.  The  tops  of  the  plants  should  be  sheared  off  once 
before  they  are  pricked  out  and  again  before  they  are  planted  to 
the  open  ground,  as  this  makes  them  stocky  and  helps  them  to 
recover  from  transplanting.  If  the  leaves  are  all  left  on  the 
plants  when  they  are  set  out,  they  generally  dry  up  an  in  so 
doing  take  away  much  moisture  from  the  roots.  The  plants 
should  be  hardened  off  before  being  set  out.  Early  celery  should 
be  bleached  by  being  covered  with  boards  or  with  boards  and 
straw,  since  the  ordinary  way  of  bleaching  it  by  banking  with 
earth  is  liable  to  bring  on  disease  in  warm  weather. 

Late  Celery.— The  greatest  demand  for  celery  is  during  the 

autumn      and      winter 
months,  and  very  little  is 
marketed  during  the  sum- 
mer.    The     seed     for     au- 
tumn and  winter  celery  is 
generally  sown  in  April  in 
the      open      ground,     al- 
though  some   of   our   best 
growers    sow   the   seed   in 
hotbeds     or     cold     frames 
before  the  land  outdoors  can  be 
all.  If  the  seed  is  sown  outside,  a  piece 
land  is  generally  selected.     The  seed  is 
drills  about  nine  inches  apart  and  one- 
deep,  and  the  soil  is  well  firmed  over  it 
ing.     Some  growers  do  not  cover  eel- 
all,    except    by    rolling    or    patting    it 
the  back  of  a  spade.     If  there  is  dan- 
seed  drying  out,  some  growers  shade 


early  in 
worked  at 
of  fine  rich 
sown  in 
quarter  inch 
after  cover- 
ery  seed  at 
down  with 
ger    of    the 


the  bed  with  Fig.  91. — White  cotton  cloth  or  with  a  lath  screen  rais- 
ed about  Plume  Celery.  one  foot  from  ^e  gr0und  and  so  made 
as  to  keep  off  about  one-half  the  sunlight.  Another  plan 
is  to  cover  the  bed  with  burlap  after  sowing  the  seed  and  water 
the  seed  through  it;   in  this  latter  case,  however,  it  is  very  im- 


CELERY.  181 

portant  to  watch  carefully  and  remove  the  cloth  covering  as  soon 
as  the  plants  appear.  The  seed  germinates  slowly.  The  seed- 
lings are  quite  weak  and  should  receive  almost  constant  cultiva- 
tion. The  tops  should  be  sheared  off  once  or  twice,  as  recom- 
mended for  early  celery,  to  make  the  plants  stocky;  they  should 
also  be  thinned  out  so  that  there  will  not  be  over  twenty  or  thirty 
plants  to  the  foot  of  row.  When  sufficiently  large,  they  should 
be  moved  to  the  field  where  they  are  to  grow.  Treated  in  this 
way,  the  plants  will  be  strong  and  stocky;  if  left  to  crowd  one 
another,  they  probably  will  be  weak  and  poor.  Some  successful 
growers  prefer  to  transplant  once  to  narrow  rows  before  setting 
in  the  field  where  the  crop  is  to  mature.  This  makes  the  final 
transplanting  most  certain  by  increasing  the  fibrous  roots,  but  is 
not  generally  necessary,  although  a  good  plan  under  unfavorable 
conditions. 

In  the  growing  of  celery  plants  it  will  often  be  a  good  plan 
at  the  first  transplanting  to  make  up  a  special  bed  for  them. 
This  should  be  done  as  follows:  A  place  four  feet  wide  and  of 
any  length  should  be  selected,  the  top  soil  to  the  depth  of  about 
three  inches  thrown  off,  and  then  rotten  manure  such  as  that 
which  comes  from  spent  hotbeds  or  similar  material  put  in  to 
the  depth  of  about  three  inches.  The  top  soil  should  then  be 
returned  and  the  plants  set  out  in  it.  Treated  in  this  way  the 
young  plants  will  develop  a  compact  root  system  in  the  manure, 
and  may  be  transplanted  with  a  ball  of  roots  almost  as  well  as 
if  they  had  been  grown  in  pots.  Plants  grown  in  this  way  are 
especially  desirable  when  transplanting  must  be  done  in  a  dry 
time,  but  seedbeds  require  much  water. 

Planting. — Having  good  plants,  the  next  thing  is  to  set  them 
so  as  to  get  a  good  crop.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  in  some 
sections  to  grow  celery  as  a  second  crop  after  early  peas,  lettuce, 
cabbage  or  beets.  In  such  a  case  the  plants,  perhaps,  had  better 
not  be  set  out  until  the  first  crop  has  been  gathered;  but  where 
only  one  crop  is  to  be  grown  the  plants  may  be  set  as  soon  as 
big  enough.  This  will  generally  be  from  the  middle  to  the  latter 
part  of  June  and  for  latest  use  the  latter  part  of  July.  The  land 
should  be  thoroughly  plowed,  harrowed  and  smoothed  off.  Fur- 
rows six  inches  deep  should  then  be  made  where  the  plants  are 


182  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

to  go,  and  in  these  about  three  inches  of  fine,  well-rotted  ma- 
nure or  compost  should  be  placed.  This  manure  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  soil,  and  the  furrow  nearly  filled.  For 
mixing  the  manure  and  soil  perhaps  there  is  no  better  imple- 
ment than  a  one  horse  cultivator  with  tho  teeth  set  close  to- 
gether. If  the  land  is  unusually  rich  in  plant  food,  there  is  no 
need  of  going  to  this  trouble,  but  the  plants  may  be  set  right 
after  the  marker.  In  any  case  the  rows  should  be  four  or  five 
feet  apart  for  the  common  kinds  that  have  to  be  bleached  by 
banking  up  with  earth,  but  the  self-bleaching  and  dwarf  kinds 
can  be  managed  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  The  plants  should  be 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Before  the  plants  are  dug  from  the  seedbed,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  with  water;  the  plants  should  have  the  tops 
«;ut  off,  trimmed,  and  the  roots  dipped  in  water.  If  the  roots  are 
very  long  they  should  be  shortened  so  they  may  be  easily  han- 
dled. The  place  where  they  are  to  be  planted  should  be  moist, 
and  every  precaution  taken  to  prevent  the  plants  drying  out 
when  they  are  being  moved.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
planting  on  freshly  plowed  land  and  to  firming  the  soil  around 
the  roots.  If  the  land  is  dry  it  must  be  watered  before  it  is  safe 
co  set  out  celery  plants,  and  if  the  weather  is  very  hot  and  dry 
the  plants  must  also  be  shaded  from  the  sun.  The  ground  should 
be  kept  clean  and  mellow  between  the  plants  with  a  horse  culti- 
vator throughout  the  season. 

If,  while  the  crop  is  growing,  it  is  thought  the  plants  re- 
quire more  food,  it  may  be  supplied  by  plowing  a  shallow  fur- 
row away  from  them  on  one  side  and  putting  in  fine  well-rotted 
stable  manure,  hen  manure  or  compost  and  covering  it  with  soil. 
This  treatment  supplies  the  food  directly  to  the  roots  and  is  very 
effective.  Nitrate  of  soda  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizer  may 
also  be  used  to  advantage  in  this  way. 

Celery  and  Onions  Together. — In  some  sections  celery  is 
grown  as  a  second  crop  with  onions.  In  this  case  every  fourth 
or  fifth  row  is  left  vacant  when  the  onion  seed  is  sown,  and  this 
space  is  set  out  to  late  celery  plants  at  the  proper  time.  If  the 
onion  seed  is  sown  by  the  20th  of  April,  almost  any  of  the  well- 
known  commercial  sorts  like  Yellow  Danvers  or  Red  Wethers- 


CELERY.  183 

field  will  be  ripe  by  the  middle  of  August,  when  they  can  be 
harvested;  and  then  the  celery  can  occupy  all  the  land  during 
the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  when  it  makes  its  most  rapid 
growth. 


Figure  No  92. — Celery  plant?  which  have  been  transplant*  <1  from  the 
seed  box  into  moist  soil  that  is  rich  in  rotted  manure.  Thus  treat- 
ed, the  celery  forms  a  close,  compact  root  system,  to  which  the 
soil  adheres  in  lumps  when  taken  up,  and  on  this  account  the 
plants  are  very  sure  to  start  well  when  set  out  permanently  in 
the  field. 


Handling. — As  celery  grows  naturally  it  spreads  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  like  the  carrot.  The  term  handling  refers  to 
the  process  by  which  the  leaf  stalks  of  each  plant  are  drawn 
together  and  some  earth  pressed  firmly  around  them  by  the 
hands,  to  hold  them  in  an  upright  position.  After  this  is  done 
more  earth  is  drawn  towards  the  plants  with  a  hoe,  until  there 
is  enough  to  prevent  their  spreading  open.  All  celery  plants 
■hould  have  this  upright  form  before  being  stored,  and  it  is  all 


184 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


the  bleaching  treatment  necessary  for  the  self-blanching  kinds. 
The  land  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated  and  a  furrow  turned 
towards  the  plants  on  each  side  of  the  row  before  the  handling 
process  is  begun,  so  there  may  be  plenty  of  loose  earth  to  work 
with. 

Bleaching  with  Earth  or  "Banking." — If  the  celery  is  in- 
tended for  marketing  previous  to  the  first  of  December,  it  should 
be  banked  up  or  otherwise  bleached  in  the  field.  Banking  up 
is  done  immediately  after  "handling."  It  consists  in  plowing 
earth  against  the  celery  to  begin  with  and  then  finishing  it  off 
with  a  shovel  or  wide  hoe  until  the  earth  is  banked  up  to  the 
full  height  of  the  celery.  This  had  better  be  done  in  several 
operations  as  the  plants  grow  and  need  it. 


Figure  93— Celery  banked  up  for  bleaching-. 

Bleaching  with  Boards. — Celery  that  is  to  be  marketed  early 
should  be  bleached  with  boards,  because  if  "banked"  with  earth 
it  is  more  liable  to  become  diseased.  Boards  ten  inches  wide 
are  the  best  but  narrower  boards  may  be  used  nearly  as  well, 
providing  the  earth  is  first  drawn  towards  the  plants  for  them 
to  rest  on.  The  plants  are  generally  handled  before  the  boards 
are  put  on,  but  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  although  desira- 
ble. A  board  should  be  put  upon  each  side  of  the  row  quite 
close  to  the  plants  and  be  held  in  place  with  ±  peg.  If  for  any 
reason  there  are  vacancies  in  the  row  or  the  plants  are  not 
close  enough  to  exclude  light  from  the  stalks  when  the  boards 
are  put  up,  the  vacancies  may  be  filled  with  hay  or  straw.    For 


CELERY. 


185 


late  autumn  use  it  is  probably  best  to  bleach  the  plants  with 
earth,  as  it  also  protects  from  frost  and  is  much  cheaper  than 
bleaching  with  boards  when  the  first  cost  of  the  boards  and 
the  handling  of  them  is  considered.  In  fact,  almost  all  growers 
use  earth  to  bleach  their  late  celery. 

Planting  in  Beds. — Some  growers  prefer  to  plant  celery  in 
beds  four  feet  wide  and  to  have  the  plants  set  ten  inches  apart 
each  way  in  the  beds;    in  which  case  a  four  foot  path  is  left 


Figure  94 — Celery  grown  in  beds  and  earthed  up  to  bleach. 

between  the  beds  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  weeding. 
In  this  way  a  very  large  amount  of  celery  can  be  grown  on  a 
very  small  piece  of  land.  By  putting  boards  up  on  both  sides  of 
the  paths,  the  plants  will  take  on  the  upright  form,  so  that 
handling  will  be  unnecessary-  For  late  use  the  plants  may  be 
taken  directly  from  the  bed  to  the  cellar  without  banking,  but  it 
will  generally  be  found  a  good  plan  late  in  the  fall  to  pack  the 
spaces  between  the  plants  with  hay  or  fill  them  with  earth  from 
the  paths,  as  they  will  then  be  protected  from  frosts.  If  the 
celery  is  to  be  blanched  in  the  bed,  this,  of  course,  would  be 
necessary.  To  grow  plants  so  close  together  successfully  requires 
the  utmost  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  land.  It  should  be 
covered  with  fine  rich  manure,  preferably  in  the  spring;  the 
plants  also  require  to  be  frequently  and  heavily  watered,  since 
the  land  will  be  free  of  roots. 


186  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Digging  Celery. — Celery  will  stand  many  light  frosts,  but 
hard  freezing  is  liable  to  injure  it,  and  it  should  never  be  han- 
dled when  frozen.  It  is  seldom  safe  to  allow  it  to  remain  un- 
protected in  the  ground  in  this  section  after  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber, but  by  covering  the  plants  with  straw  or  other  material  they 
may  often  be  safely  left  in  the  field  until  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber if  well  banked  up.  The  plants  are  generally  lifted  with  a 
spade  after  a  furrow  has  been  plowed  away  from  the  row  on  one 
side.  Most  of  the  soil  should  be  shaken  off  the  roots  and  the 
old  outside  leaves  removed  before  storing.  In  this  section,  to 
keep  well,  celery  should  be  stored  in  a  cold,  moist  cellar  or  frost- 
proof shed.  If  it  does  not  whiten  quickly  enough  the  plants  may 
be  watered  and  kept  warm  and  thus  started  into  growth,  which 
results  in  forming  the  tender  white  shoots  very  quickly. 

Storing  Celery. — For  home  use  a  good  way  to  keep  celery  is 
to  pack  the  plants  closely  together,  upright,  in  boxes  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  wide,  with  the  bottom  covered  with  several 
inches  of  moist  sand,  a  little  of  which  should  be  worked  in 
among  the  roots.  There  is  no  need  of  having  sand  between  the 
plants.  These  boxes,  when  packed,  should  be  kept  in  a  cold, 
damp  cellar.  In  storing  for  market  use,  where  there  is  plenty 
of  storage  room,  the  plants  are  sometimes  "heeled  in"  in  sand  on 
the  floor;  the  cheapest  practicable  way,  however,  is  to  pack  them 
between  boards  about  nine  inches  apart.  To  do  this,  place  the 
first  board  on  one  side  of  the  cellar  or  shed  nine  inches  from 
the  wall,  with  its  upper  edge  at  a  height  from  the  floor  a  little 
less  than  the  length  of  the  cellar.  The  boards  may  be  supported 
by  stakes  and  should  not  rest  on  the  ground.  In  this  narrow  di- 
vision the  celery  should  be  packed  upright,  as  described  for  pack- 
ing in  boxes.  As  soon  as  the  first  tier  is  filled,  erect  another 
board  division  at  nine  inches  from  the  first,  and  so  continue 
until  the  whole  surface  is  covered.  No  soil  or  sand  is  packed 
among  the  stalks  of  celery,  but  three  or  four  inches  of  either  is 
placed  on  the  floor,  into  which  the  roots  are  bedded.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  celery  should  be  kept  very  low,  and  even  a  little 
frost  in  the  cellar  will  not  hurt  it.  If  dry,  it  must  be  watered, 
but  water  must  not  be  put  upon  the  leaves,  as  it  may  bring  on 
rot.    If  celery  is  wanted  for  immediate  use,  it  may  be  stored  in 


CELERY.  187 

barrels  or  troughs  containing  an  inch  or  two  of  water.  This  is 
also  a  very  good  way  of  hastening  the  bleaching  process. 

The  green  stalks  of  celery  do  not  become  white,  and  the 
term  "bleaching"  is  a  misnomer.  The  "bleaching"  of  celery  is 
simply  the  result  of  the  plant  making  growth  in  the  dark. 
Bleached  celery  will  keep  but  a  short  time  and  should  be  used 
as  soon  as  white.  Celery  for  use  in  the  latter  part  of  winter 
should  be  quite  green  in  color  when  put  into  winter  storage;  for 
early  winter  use  it  should  be  partly  bleached  when  stored.  For 
winter  use  celery  should  be  left  out  as  late  as  is  safe  in  the 
fall,  so  that  the  cellar  or  pit  where  it  is  to  be  stored  may  be 
thoroughly  cooled  off  before  it  is  put  in. 

The  Time  Required  for  Bleaching  Celery  in  the  field  will  de- 
pend upon  whether  it  is  growing  rapidly  or  not.  During  the  first 
part  of  September,  when  it  is  making  a  rapid  growth,  it  will 
probably  be  fit  to  use  in  three  weeks  from  the  time  it  is  banked 
up;  while  later  on,  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  the  celery  is 
growing  slowly,  four  weeks  will  be  found  necessary.  The  same 
conditions  affect  the  bleaching  process  after  storing.  In  an 
ordinary  frost  proof  cellar,  it  may  easily  be  bleached  in  three 
weeks  by  watering  it  and  then  raising  the  temperature  to  fifty 
degrees. 

Celery  Seed  is  raised  by  wintering  the  roots  and  planting 
them  out  in  the  spring,  in  much  the  same  way  that  seed  of  the 
carrot  and  other  biennial  plants  is  grown. 

Diseases. — There  are  two  diseases,  rust  and  leaf  blight,  that 
sometimes  seriously  injure  celery,  but  they  are  not  commonly 
very  troublesome.  As  a  rule,  celery  growers  do  not  attempt  to 
fight  them,  but  select  the  healthiest  varieties  and  trust  to  good 
cultivation  to  enable  the  plants  to  resist  them.  The  diseases  re- 
ferred to  are  described  as  follows: 

Leaf  Blight.  (Septoria  Petroselini  var.  apii.)  All  parts  of 
•■he  celery  plant  except  the  roots  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this 
fungous  disease.  Watery  spots  appear  on  the  stems  and  leaves, 
vhich  soon  show  small,  black  dots.  This  disease  may  be  spread 
by  the  seeds,  which  are  likely  to  become  infected. 

Treatment. — The  first  precaution  is  to  plant  clean  seed. 
That  which  is  spotted  or  speckled  with  the  black  spots  of  disease 


188 


VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 


should  be  avoided.  In  addition  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  spray 
the  young  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture  on  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  disease. 

Celery  Blight,  Rust  or  Sun-Scald.  (Cercospora  apli. — [Fries.]) 

The  first  indication  of 
this  disease  is  the  ap- 
pearance of  yellowish 
spots  on  the  leaves. 
These  finally  run  to- 
gether and  turn  the  en- 
tire leaves  yellow  and 
then  brown. 

Treatment. — Secure  as 
healthful  conditions  as 
possible.  Where  the 
plants  are  somewhat 
shaded,  they  are  less  lia- 
ble to  the  disease  than 
if  in  the  full  sunlight. 
This  disease  is  especial- 
ly bad  in  very  dry  loca- 
tions. It  is  reported  that  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  other 
standard  fungicides  will  entirely  prevent  it. 

Varieties  of  Celery. — The  dwarf  kinds  are  the  best  to  grow; 
the  red  varieties  are  of  excellent  quality  but  do  not  take  well 
in  the  markets.  For  early  marketing  the  White  Plume  is  highly 
esteemed  and  probably  the  most  profitable  variety  for  general 
marketing.  Its  stalks  and  leaves  are  white  without  going  through 
the  bleaching  process  but  are  not  of  as  good  flavor  as  when 
bleached.  Golden  Self  Blanching  is  another  similar  variety,  that 
is  considered  by  some  growers  superior  to  White  Plume.  One 
of  the  best  flavored  as  well  as  best  keeping  kinds  is  the  Golden 
Dwarf,  or  Golden  Hearted  Dwarf.  Other  good  varieties  are  the 
Perfection,  Hartwell,  Giant  Pascal  and  the  Boston  Market. 

Celeriac,  or  Turnip-Rooted  Celery,  is  a  form  of  celery  culti- 
vated for  its  roots,  which  are  eaten  either  cooked  or  raw.  The 
stalks  are  generally  hollow  and  quite  worthless.  The  plants  are 
raised  by  the  same  method  as  that  for  celery  but  may  be  planted 


Figure  95— Turnip-rooted  celery  or  celeriac. 


SWEET  POTATOES.  189 

In  rows  not  over  twelve  inches  apart.     The  roots  are  generally 
kept  by  storing  them  in  moist  sand  the  same  as  carrots. 

Marketing. — Celery  is  marketed  when  well  blanched.  In 
preparing  it  for  market  most  of  the  roots  are  trimmed  off  and 
the  green  and  decaying  leaves  are  removed.  About  a  dozen  roots 
are  generally  tied  together  for  a  bunch,  although  the  size  of  the 
bunch  varies  in  different  markets.  Celery  can  be  easily  shipped 
long  distances  when  trimmed  and  packed  in  tight  boxes.  Much 
of  that  which  is  supplied  to  the  markets  of  this  section  comes 
from  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  where  it  is  raised  on  drained  swamp 
land. 
THE  MORNING  GLORY  FAMILY.     (Order  convolvulaceae.) 

The  Morning  Glory  Family  includes  mostly  twining,  trailing 
or  rarely  erect  plants  (some  tropical  species  are  shrubs  or  trees, 
ours  are  herbs.)  Commonly  with  some  milky  juice,  alternate 
leaves,  no  stipules,  regular  gamopetalous  flowers;  fruit  a  2-4- 
valved  capsule.  The  Sweet  Potato  is  the  only  vegetable  that 
occurs  in  this  group  which  is  here  mentioned.  This  family  also 
includes  the  Morning  Glory,  Bindweed  and  Man  of  the  Earth. 
SWEET  POTATO.     (Ipomea  batatas.) 

Native  of  South  America. — Perennial,  but  cultivated  as  an 
annual. — It  is  a  near  relative  of  the  morning  glory  and  scarcely 
resembles  the  common  potato  in  any  particular.  It  probably  can- 
not be  profitably  raised  in  the  extreme  northern  states,  but  may 
be  grown  in  a  small  way  in  warm,  sandy  soil  as  far  north  as 
Minnesota  and  will  produce  even  there  very  large  tubers.  The 
plant  never  flowers  at  the  North  and  is  never  cultivated  from 
seed. 

Culture. — The  sweet  potato  is  raised  from  sprouts,  which 
are  produced  abundantly  if  the  tubers  are  planted  in  a  hotbed 
in  the  early  spring.  The  sprouts  are  carefully  pulled  from  the 
tubers  and  are  planted  out  after  the  soil  has  become  warm. 
They  should  be  set  two  feet  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  They 
need  considerable  care  until  started,  after  which  they  require 
good  cultivation  only  and  are  easily  grown.  The  vines  spread 
on  the  ground  and  have  a  tendency  to  root  at  the  joints,  which 
should  be  discouraged  by  moving  them  at  every  hoeing.  They 
are  very  susceptible  to  cold  weather  and  should  be  pulled  as  soon 


190 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


as  the  tops  are  frosted.  There  are  many  cultivated  varieties  in 
the  South.  For  the  northern  states,  Early  Carolina  is  perhaps 
the  best. 


THE  POTATO  FAMILY.     (Order  Solanaceae.) 
The  Potato  Family  is  made  up  of  mostly  herbaceous  plants 
with  rank-scented  Herbage   (this  and  the  fruit  more  commonly 
narcotic-poisonous^,    colorless    juice,    alternate    leaves,    regular 
flowers  with  the  parts  usually  in  fives.     There  are  many  poison- 
ous plants  in  this  group,  which  fact  led  to  the  tomato  being  re- 
garded with  much  sus- 
picion  for   many   years 
and    the    tops    of   pota- 
toes   and    even    tubers 
that  have  become  green 
by  exposure  to  sunlight 
contain       a     poisonous 
principle.     Besides    the 
potato,       tomato,      egg 
plant,         pepper       and 
strawberry      tomato, 
wnose     cultural     direc- 
tions    are     here    given, 
the     Tobacco,    Petunia, 
Nightshade,     Datura, 
Salpiglossis,    Jerusalem 
Cherry      and     Nierem- 
bergia  of  the   gardens, 
belong   to   this    family. 
Fig.  96 — Sweet  potatoes  and  piece  of  vine. 

POTATO.     (Solanum  tuberosum.) 
Native  of  the  high  mountain  regions  of  South  America. — 
Grown  as  an  annual,  but  truly  a  perennial  through  its  tubers. 
Its  stems  are  more  or  less  four  angled.  The  flowers  vary  ir 

color  from  white  to  purplish.  Many  kinds  do  not  flower,  and 
most  varieties  seldom  if  ever  produce  fruit.  The  fruit  is  a  round- 
ish or  slightly  oval  berry,  of  a  green  color  or  tinged  with  violet 
brown  and  averaging  about  an  inch  in  diameter.     The  puip  ig 


POTATO.  191 

green  and  very  acrid.  The  seeds  are  white,  kidney-shaped  and 
flat.  The  seed  is  never  sown  except  for  producing  new  varie- 
ties.    Seedlings  vary  greatly  and  often  do  not  obtain  full  size 

until  three  years  old. 
The  tubers  are  com- 
monly referred  to  as 
"seed,"  but  they  should 
be  regarded  as  cuttings 
or  sets;  they  are  only 
swollen  underground 
branches  filled  with 
starchy  matter.  They 
vary  much  in  size  and 
shape  and  in  color  ©f 
skin,  from  white  to  al- 
most black,  including 
yellow,  red  and  blue. 
There  are  a  thousand 
or  more  of  named  va- 
rieties, but  many  of 
txxem  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable   from    oth- 

Figure97— Potato  plant  showing  tubers  and  roots    er  name(j   kinds. 

Origin  of  the  Modern  Potato. — Fifty  years  ago  potato  rot  ran 
over  western  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  bring  starvation  in  regions  where  potatoes  were  the  princi- 
pal article  of  diet;  no  one  knows  where  the  potato  came  from 
that  was  cultivated  previous  to  that  time.  Rev.  Chauncey  Good- 
rich, of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  urged  before  agricultural  societies  and  the 
agricultural  committees  of  the  New  York  legislature  that  potato 
rot  resulted  from  lowered  vitality  of  the  potato  plant,  due  to  its 
being  grown  under  high  cultivation  and  in  climate,;  and  soils 
not  wholly  congenial  to  a  sub-tropical  plant,  native  to  a  small 
section  only  of  the  earth's  surface;  and  he  claimed  that  the 
way  to  restore  its  vigor  would  be  to  get  varieties  from  the  part 
of  South  America  that  was  the  home  of  the  potato.  His  theories 
were  laughed  at  by  scientific  men,  and  the  legislative  committee 
told  him  he  knew  more  about  theology  than  about  plant  diseases. 


W'Z  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Being  thus  repulsed,  he  attempted  on  his  own  account  what  he 
felt  should  be  undertaken  by  the  state.  Mr.  Goodrich  commenced 
his  experiments  about  1848  and  at  various  times  for  many  years 
imported  potatoes  from  South  America,  and  from  these  and  their 
progeny  he  raised  many  seedlings.  Among  eight  kinds  received 
at  one  importation  (probably  from  Chili)  was  a  variety  that  he 
called  the  Rough  Purple  Chili.  It  ripened  late  in  the  season  and 
was  generally  hollow,  but  it  had  flesh  of  fine  texture  and  was 
free  from  rot.  From  seed  saved  from  this  he  raised  the  Garnet 
Chili,  which  was  a  popular  variety  for  many  years  in  New  York 
state.  The  Garnet  Chili  was  parent  of  the  Early  Rose  and  of 
Brazee's  Prolific  and  other  Brazee  seedlings  and,  indeed,  of 
nearly  all  of  the  desirable  varieties  of  Europe  and  America  which 
have  been  prized  for  half  a  century.  Although  from  some  of  his 
other  importations  he  also  raised  a  few  very  good  sorts,  yet  the 
progeny  of  the  Rough  Purple  Chili  gave  him  the  most  valuable 
kinds.  Among  Goodrich's  other  seedlings  were  Gleason,  Calico, 
Harrison  and  Early  Goodrich.  The  latter  was  the  parent  of 
the  Chicago  Market. 

Mr.  Goodrich  is  said  to  have  raised  about  sixteen  thousand 
seedling  potatoes  from  1848  to  1864.  Out  of  this  large  number 
he  found  only  about  one  in  a  thousand  that  he  thought  enough 
better  than  the  old  sorts  to  make  it  appear  probable  that  they 
would  be  desirable  for  cultivation.  The  work  that  he  did  in  this 
line  has  been  of  great  value  to  Europe  and  America. 

Soil  and  Manure. — If  given  proper  treatment,  potatoes  can 
be  grown  on  soil  of  almost  any  composition,  provided  it  is  well 
drained,  but  a  light,  rich  soil  is  best.  The  kind  of  soil  to 
some  extent  affects  the  quality  of  the  tubers;  grown  on  sandy 
soil,  they  are  generally  of  better  table  quality  than  on  clay  soils, 
and  when  grown  on  muck  land  the  skin  is  generally  dark  col- 
ored and  the  flesh  not  mealy.  New  soil  is  most  desirable,  and  in 
it  the  tubers  are  generally  healthy;  sod  land  is  most  excellent 
for  this  crop,  but  the  "seed"  should  always  be  under  the  sod  and 
not  on  top  of  it.  If  planted  on  the  sod  the  crop  is  very  certain 
to  suffer  from  drouth  in  dry  seasons.  It  is  not  generally  advisa- 
ble to  manure  the  land  the  season  of  planting  potatoes,  but 
preferably  to  apply  it  to  some  previous  crop,  but  if  manure  is  to 


POTATO.  193 

be  applied,  it  should  be  well  rotted.  Raw  stable  manure  is  gener- 
ally to  be  avoided,  unless  it  can  be  applied  a  year  in  advance 
In  applying  manure,  it  is  very  important  not  to  use  that  from 
animals  which  have  been  fed  on  scabby  potatoes,  as  such  ma- 
nure is  liable  to  cause  scabbiness  in  the  crop. 

The  Sets  (commonly  called  "Seed.")— The  tubers  for  plant- 
ing should  be  sound  and  not  sprouted-though  if  sprouted  they 
may  do  well;  sprouting  injures  the  vitality  of  the  potatoes  and  is 
harmful.  We  should  regard  the  potato  much  as  we  do  a  willow 
or  other  plant  that  grows  freely  from  dormant  cuttings  if  it  has 
the  right  soil  conditions,  for  the  tuber  is  truly  a  stem.  Given 
good  sound  seed  potatoes  for  planting  and  good  soil  conditions, 
it  matters  little  how  the  sets  are  cut,  provided  that  every  eye 
that  grows  is  on  a  piece  of  potato  large  enough  to  nourish  the 
young  sprout  until  it  has  a  good  root  system  and  enough  ex- 
panded leaves  to  gather  and  digest  its  own  food.  In  practice 
the  sets  should  have  one,  two  or  three  eyes  according  to 
whether  the  tubers  have  few  or  many  eyes.  Varieties  with  few 
eyes  such  as  the  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2,  should  be  cut  to 
about  one  eye  to  a  piece,  while  those  having  many  eyes  should 
have  two  or  three  to  each  piece.  Very  small  seed  pieces  will 
not  give  a  full  crop,  consequently  large  pieces  are  desirable.  The 
biggest  crops  are  not  likely  to  come  from  the  planting  of  whole 
tubers,  but  such  sets  generally  give  a  larger  proportion  of  small 
potatoes  than  cuttings  made  as  recommended.  The  constant  use 
of  small  tubers  for  sets  undoubtedly  causes  varieties  to  "run  out  " 
and  although  it  is  a  practice  that  may  be  occasionally  followed 
without  serious  results,  it  should  generally  be  avoided. 

Varieties  of  potatoes  seldom  retain  their  pristine  vigor  and 
productiveness  many  years  except  in  very  favorable  locations 
On  some  land,  even  with  the  best  of  care,  they  are  apt  to  "run 

7nU  7  af  a  ™le'  ll  iS  a  S°0d  Plan  to  occasionally  get  seed 
stock  from  locations  very  favorable  to  the  best  development  of 
the  potato  or,  at  least,  to  change  for  seed  potatoes  grown  on  a 
different  kind  of  land. 

In  saving  potatoes  for  seed,  it  is  desirable  to  select  them 
in  the  field  from  hills  having  the  largest  number  of  marketable 
tubers,  as  there  is  then  a  tendency  to  fix  this  desirable  quality. 


194  VEGETABLE   GARDENING. 

When  selecting  from  the  bin,  take  smooth,  even,  medium-sized 
potatoes;  the  largest  tubers  will  not  necessarily  give  the  largest 
yield.  If  planting  is  done  on  a  small  scale  it  will  probably  be 
found  more  economical  to  cut  them  by  hand.  Some  of  the  auto- 
matic seed  potato  cutting  machines  leave  a  good  many  pieces 
without  eyes,  and  on  this  account  hand  fed  potato  cutters  are 
most  desirable  for  general  use,  although  where  land  is  very  cheap 
the  automatic  feed  machines  may  sometimes  be  the  more  eco- 
nomical. 

Early  Planting. — For  early  use  potatoes  should  be  planted  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  nicely  settled.  Light,  sandy  loam  is  best 
for  this  purpose.  The  tops  are  quite  sensitive  to  frost,  but,  as 
they  start  slowly,  they  seldom  get  up  until  all  danger  from  frost 
is  past.  If  when  pushing  out  of  the  ground  there  is  danger 
from  frost,  the  tops  are  easily  protected  from  it  by  covering 
them  lightly  with  loose  earth  from  between  the  rows,  through 
which  they  soon  push  again.  If  frozen  off  when  several  inches 
high  the  crop  is  generally  seriously  lessened,  even  though  new 
sprouts  take  the  place  of  those  injured.  For  early  crops,  the 
ground  may  be  plowed  several  times  in  the  spring  to  expose  it  to 
the  air  and  to  warm  it  before  planting.  The  sets  for  the  early 
crop  should  not  be  covered  quite  so  deep  as  for  the  main  crop, 
but  in  other  particulars  the  crop  should  be  treated  the  same 
way,  and  the  quickest  maturing  kinds  only  should  be  planted.  If 
the  tubers  for  early  sets  are  spread  out  in  a  light,  warm  room  for 
three  or  four  weeks  before  planting,  healthy  green  sprouts  will 
start  from  the  eyes,  and,  if  in  cutting  these  sprouts  are  care- 
fully handled  so  as  not  to  break  them  off,  the  crop  will  be  much 
earlier  than  if  the  sets  were  not  thus  started;  they  may  also  be 
started  in  a  hotbed  before  or  after  being  cut  and  afterwards 
transplanted  to  the  open  ground;  but  these  methods  are  seldom 
practiced  except  U  a  very  small  way,  although  in  some  sections 
they  might  perhaps  be  made  profitable. 

Main  Crop. — For  the  main  crop  of  potatoes,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  seed  in  the  ground  pretty  early.  It  is  customary  in 
this  section  to  plant  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of  June. 
When  planted  later  they  are  liable  to  suffer  seriously  from 
drought,  and  earlier  planting  is  more  desirable.  The  results  of 
many  experiments  show  that  the  sets  should  be  planted  about 


POTATO.  195 

four  inches  deep,  at  sixteen  inch  intervals,  in  rows  three  feet 
apart.  This  work  may  be  done  by  furrowing  out  with  the  plow 
or  horse  hoe,  planting  by  hand  and  covering  the  sets  with  the 
plow,  though  when  planted  on  a  large  scale  the  work  is  generally 
done  by  a  potato  planter.  There  are  several  excellent  potato 
planters  on  the  market.  Some  good  growers  prefer  to  plant  the 
sets  in  check  rows  three  feet  apart  each  way  when  the  land  is 
weedy,  but  so  much  space  between  the  plants  is  not  generally 
desirable,  since  under  ordinary  circumstances  thorough  harrow- 
ing when  the  crop  is  young  will  destroy  all  weeds.  If  the  sets 
are  planted  four  inches  deep,  very  little  hilling  up  is  required; 
if  planted  much  deeper  the  digging  is  quite  difficult;  if  planted 
nearer  the  surface,  the  tubers  are  liable  to  push  out  of  the 
ground  and  require  to  be  hilled  up,  which  is  not  desirable.  The 
land  should  be  harrowed  or  thoroughly  cultivated  with  a  Breed's 
Weeder  as  soon  as  the  smallest  weeds  can  be  seen  or  a  crust 
forms  on  the  land  after  planting.  It  is  entirely  practicable  to 
harrow  potatoes  at  least  three  times,  the  first  time  just  before 
the  plants  show,  the  second  when  they  are  just  above  ground 
and  the  third  when  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high. 
Little  if  any  harm  will  be  done  the  plants  by  this  work,  provid- 
ing a  slanting  tooth  harrow  is  used.  Such  treatment  will  do 
more  to  remove  weeds  than  a  good  hand  hoeing,  and  the  expense 
of  the  operation  is  almost  nothing.  If  the  work  is  properly  done, 
there  is  seldom  any  need  of  hand  work  with  this  crop.  Subse- 
quent cultivation  should  consist  in  keeping  the  soil  loose  between 
the  rows,  and  a  little  earth  should  be  thrown  against  the  plants. 
For  this  purpose  a  good  horse  hoe  will  do  excellent  work,  but  a 
still  better  implement  is  a  two-horse  cultivator  that  works  both 
sides  of  the  row  at  one  operation.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  hill 
up  potatoes,  and  it  should  not  be  done  unless  they  are  pushing 
out  of  the  ground,  when  they  will  turn  green  if  not  covered  up. 
Cultivation  should  be  thorough  when  the  plants  are  young  but 
is  not  desirable  after  the  tops  have  made  most  of  their  growth. 
Digging  Potatoes. — Early  potatoes  are  generally  dug  as  soon 
as  they  are  big  enough  for  cooking  if  there  is  a  good  market  for 
them;  for  winter  use  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  tubers  well 
ripened;  if  not  ripe  the  skin  will  peel  off  when  handled,  and 
they  do  not  look  well.    When  potatoes  are  high  in  price  it  may 


196 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


pay  to  dig  them  by  hand,  for  which  purpose  tined  garden  forks 
are  desirable;  the  best  potato  diggers,  however,  do  as  good 
work  as  can  be  done  by  hand,  and  are  generally  used  by  those 
who  raise  this  crop  on  a  large  scale.  When  potatoes  are  cheap, 
they  should  be  dug  with  a  potato  digger  or  plowed  out;  though 
when  plowed  out  some  tubers  will  get  covered  up,  most  of 
these  may  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  use  of  a  straight 
tooth  harrow.  If  the  tubers  are  keeping  well  in  the  ground,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  delay  the  digging  until  the  cool  weather  of 
autumn,  when  they  may  be  carried  directly  from  the  field  to  the 
cellar.  If  they  are  rotting  in  the  ground  or  are  "scabby,"  they 
should  be  dug  at  once,  and  if  the  cellar  is  cool  they  may  be  put 
at  once  into  it,  but,  otherwise,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pit  them  in 
the  field  until  cool  weather  comes. 

Pitting  in  mild  weather  is  done  by  putting  the  tubers  into 
heaps  and  covering  them  with  straw  or  hay  and  a  few  inches 
of  loam.    The  straw  should  be  allowed  to  stick  out  along  the  top 


Figure  98.— Potatoes  pitted  for  winter. 


of  the  heap  for  ventilation,  so  as  to  allow  the  moisture  to  pass 
off.  In  the  colder  weather  of  late  autumn,  the  covering,  ot 
course,  should  be  heavier,  and  when  potatoes  have  ceased  to 
sweat  there  is  no  need  of  ventilation.  In  milder  sections,  pota- 
toes are  stored  through  the  winter  in  such  pits,  but  it  is  imprac- 
ticable here.    However,  even  in  Minnesota,  potatoes  may  be  safe* 


POTATO. 


197 


ly  kept  over  winter  in  trenches  or  pits  made  below  the  ground, 
although  a  good  cellar  is  a  more  desirable  place.  For  this 
purpose  the  pit  should  not  be  large;  a  good  size  is  four  feet  wide 
and  deep  and  not  more  than  six  feet  long.  It  should  be  filled 
heaping  full  with  the  potatoes  and  covered  with  six  inches  of 
straw  and  eighteen  of  soil.  Ventilation  is  given  until  cold  weath- 
er sets  in  and  the  potatoes  are  cooled  off.  The  whole  pit  should 
then  be  covered  with  enough  litter  or  manure  (generally  about 
two  feet)  to  keep  out  the  frost.  Such  pits  can  only  be  opened  in 
mild  weather.  If  this  work  is  well  done,  the  potatoes  will  be  in 
fine  condition  in  the  spring,  but  beginners  are  very  apt  to  fail 
of  success  in  this  method  of  storing,  and  they  should  attempt  it 
only  on  a  small  scale.     It  is  better  to  make  several  pits  close 


5fe  m^w  tislc 


Fig-nre  99.— Six  g-ood  varieties  of  early  potatoes.     1— Ohio  Jr.     2— Early  Ohio 
3 -Burpee's  Extra  Early.    4— Early  Harvest.     5-Freeman.     6— Good  News. 

together  rather  than  one  large  one,  since  in  a  large  one  the  pota- 
toes are  more  likely  to  sweat.  The  sunlight  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  shine  on  them  for  any  length  of  time,  since  it  causes 
them  to  turn  green  and  develops  a  poisonous  substance  in  them. 
If  kept  in  a  cellar,  the  bins  are  improved  by  having  slatted  floors 
and  sides,  so  that  there  may  be  some  circulation  of  air  through 
them  to  prevent  heating  at  the  bottom.  The  bins  should  not  be 
large  nor  more  than  five  feet  deep.  There  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  keeping  qualities  of  varieties;  as  a  rule  the  early  kinds  are 


198 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


hard  to  keep  from  sprouting  in  the  latter  part  of  winter,  and  the 
late  kinds  keep  the  best. 

Starch. — When  potatoes  are  low  in  price,  they  can  often  be 
profitably  worked  into  starch,  but  for  this  purpose  starch  fac- 
tories must  be  near  by.  Such  factories  are  not  expensive  and 
should  be  more  common  in  this  section. 

The  demand  for  potatoes  seems  destined  to  increase  very 
much.  There  is  a  growing  demand  each  year  from  the  eastern 
and  southern  states  for  northwestern  grown  potatoes.  Under 
ordinary  cultivation,  in  this  section,  they  seldom  yield  more  than 
150  bushels  per  acre  of  marketable  tubers,  and  the  average  even 
in  favorable  years  is  probably  not  over  120  bushels  per  acre. 
There  are,  however,  recorded  yields  here  of  800  bushels  per  acre, 
and  they  often  yield  over  400  bushels. 


Figure  100.— Six  good  varieties  of  late  potatoes.  1— Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2. 
2— American  Wonder.  3— Irish  Cobbler.  4-World's  Fair.  5— Woodbury 
White.     6— Carman  No.  1. 

Varieties. — There  is  a  very  great  difference  in  varieties,  but 
many  kinds  closely  resemble  one  another.  There  is  quite  a 
difference  in  the  adaptability  of  varieties  to  soils.  The  large 
coarser  kinds  are  good  for  starch  but  not  desirable  for  table  use. 
Most  markets  prefer  a  white  or  pink  potato,  rather  long,  oval  in 
form  and  smooth,  but  the  fashions  change  and  vary  considerably 
Some  of  the  varieties  at  present  regarded  with  much  favor  arc 
the  following: 


ruu\aTU.  199 

Early  Ohio. — The  most  popular  early  kind  and  a  good  sort 
for  the  general  crop,  productive  and  very  early. 

Burbank,  or  Burbank's  Seedling,  is  an  excellent  late  kind 
and  a  good  keeper,  but  seems  to  be  running  out  in  some  sections. 
It  cooks  a  little  soggy  until  winter,  when  it  is  of  excellent  table 
quality.     Form  long  and  **ound. 

Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2. — Form  flat,  roundish  oblong,  very 
productive.  Quality  a  little  inferior  and  sometimes  inclined  to 
be  hollow.  Very  popular  in  some  sections.  It  is  undoubtedly 
much  influenced  by  the  soil  in  which  it  grows. 

Early  Rose  is  the  progenitor  of  most  of  our  good  kinds.  It 
was  introduced  into  cultivation  about  1868  and  is  still  productive 
in  the  best  potato  districts  of  this  section  but  is  not  now  adapted 
to  general  use. 

Other  varieties  of  special  merit  of  the  early  kinds  are  Early 
Acme;  of  medium  and  late  kinds  are  American  Wonder  and 
White  Prolific. 

Note  on  Propagation. — New  varieties  of  potatoes  are  gener- 
ally high  in  price,  and  it  is  desirable  to  increase  them  rapidly. 
This  may  be  done  as  follows:  Place  the  tubers  in  rich  soil  in 
boxes  or  in  pots,  without  cutting  them,  in  a  warm,  light  room, 
hotbed  or  greenhouse.  As  soon  as  the  sprouts  are  nicely  fur- 
nished with  roots,  break  them  off  at  the  surface  of  the  potato 
below  the  roots  and  plant  separately  in  pots.  New  sprouts  will 
start  from  the  eyes  apain,  and  the  process  may  be  repeated  until 
the  tuber  is  exhausted.  By  another  way,  the  tubers  are  cut  up 
and  planted  in  good  rich  loam.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  are  six 
inches  or  more  high,  about  three  inches  is  cut  off  the  top  of  each. 
These  pieces  are  put  in  moist  sand,  watered  frequently  and  al- 
lowed all  the  sunlight  they  will  stand  without  wilting  and  treat- 
ed the  same  as  it  is  common  to  treat  cuttings  of  house  plants. 
In  two  or  three  weeks  they  will  be  rooted  and  may  be  potted  in 
rich  soil.  These  shoots  may  again  be  cut  when  nicely  started, 
and  so  on.  The  plants  thus  grown  are  planted  out  when  the 
weather  is  settled  in  the  spring.  For  best  success  with  these 
methods  of  propagation,  the  work  should  begin  in  the  late  winter 
or  very  early  spring. 

Insects. — There  are  but  few  insects  that  do  serious  injury  to 


200  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  potato  in  this  section,  and  the  most  important  of  these  is  the 
Colorado  potato  beetle,  or  "potato-bug,"  but  it  may  also  be  in- 
jured by  blister  beetles,  wire  worms  and  white  grubs.  (For  reme- 
dies for  these  pests,  see  chapter  on  insects.) 

Diseases. — There  are  several  diseases  that  sometimes  injure 
the  potato.  The  most  common  of  these  are  known  as  the  scab 
and  the  blight.  Scab  is  a  term  used  to  refer  to  the  rough  patches 
with  which  potatoes  are  frequently  covered.  Potatoes  so  infected 
are  lessened  in  yield,  and  on  account  of  being  unsightly  and 
rough  do  not  sell  readily.  The  term  blight  refers  to  a  disease 
that  kills  the  tops. 

Scab  of  Potatoes  is  caused  by  a  fungous  plant  working  in 
the  surface  of  the  potato.  The  germs  of  it  are  very  abundant  and 
live  for  many  years  in  the  soil  and  also  over  winter  on  the  pota- 
toes. If  these  germs  are  fed  to  stock  they  undoubtedly  grow  in 
the  manure,  and  the  use  of  such  manure  may  often  be  the  cause 
of  infection.  Also  they  may  be  spread  in  the  soil  by  natural 
drainage  and  land  receiving  the  drainage  from  infected  fields  may 
become  infected  with  tne  disease  without  ever  having  had  pota- 
toes on  them.  Scabby  seed  potatoes  when  planted  on  new  or  old 
potato  land  will  generally  produce  a  scabby  crop,  but  the  amount 
of  the  disease  will  generally  be  much  more  on  the  old  land  than 
on  the  new. 

Perfectly  clean  seed  potatoes  planted  on  land  which  is  free 
from  the  scab  fungus  will  always  and  in  any  season  produce  a 
crop  of  smooth,  clean  potatoes,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil;  but  apparently  clean  seed  potatoes  may  havs 
the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus  on  their  surface.  This  is  often  the 
case  where  they  have  been  sorted  out  from  a  lot  that  is  some- 
what infected  with  scab.  In  this  latter  case  the  tubers  should, 
at  least,  be  thoroughly  washed  in  running  water  to  remove  any 
germs  that  may  be  present  or,  what  is  better  yet,  be  treated  with 
corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride)  as  recommended  be- 
low. 

Land  infected  by  the  germs  of  potato  scab  will  produce  a 
more  or  less  scabby  crop,  no  matter  how  clean  and  smooth  the 
seed  used. 

Scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature,  since  the 


POTATO. 


201 


scab  fungus  continues  to  grow  on  the  potatoes  as  long  as  they  are 
in  the  ground. 


Treated.  Figure  101— Potato  Scab.  Not  Treated. 

Both  plates  grown  from  the  same  lot  of  scabby  seed. 

Scabby  potatoes  may  be  safely  used  for  seed  provided  they 
are  first  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy  the  germs  of  the 
scab  that  adhere  to  them.  There  are  many  methods  of  doing 
this  but  the  most  practical  now  used  are  as  follows: 

Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment. — Procure  from  a  druggist 
two  ounces  of  powdered  corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichlor 
ide) ;  put  this  into  two  gallons  of  hot  water  in  a  wooden  or 
earthenware  vessel  and  allow  it  to  stand  until  dissolved.  Place 
thirteen  gallons  of  water  in  a  clean  barrel,  pour  in  the  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  and  allow  it  to  stand  two  or  three  hours, 
with  frequent  stirrings  in  order  to  have  the  solution  uniform. 
Select  potatoes  as  nearly  free  from  scab  as  can  be  obtained; 
put  the  seed  potatoes  into  bags,  either  before  or  after  cutting 
them,  and  then  dip  them  into  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution 
and  allow  them  to  stay  in  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  If  seed  pota- 
toes are  treated  in  this  way  and  then  planted  on  land  free  from 
scab,  the  resultant  crop  will  seldom  be  seriously  injured  by  scab. 
The  expense  of  this  treatment,  including  labor,  should  not  ex- 
ceed one  dollar  per  acre,  as  the  material  may  be  used  repeatedly. 


202  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

But  the  treated  potatoes  should  never  be  fed  to  animals,  as  cor- 
rosive sublimate  is  a  deadly  poison. 

Formaline  Treatment. — This  material  should  be  mixed  with 
water  at  the  rate  of  eight  ounces  (one  half  pint)  of  commercial 
formaline  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water.  The  potatoes  should  be 
soaked  two  hours  in  it.  If  this  method  is  used  the  seed  should 
be  planted  within  two  or  three  days  after  treatment.  This  ma- 
terial gives  equally  as  good  results  as  corrosive  sublimate.  It  is 
slightly  more  expensive,  but  the  expense  is  light  in  any  case.  It 
has,  however,  great  advantages  over  the  latter  in  that  it  is  not 
poisonous  and  being  a  liquid  is  easily  diluted  for  use  and  may 
be  placed  in  any  kind  of  a  receptacle.  This  material  does  not  in 
any  way  injure  the  tubers  or  make  them  dangerously  poisonous. 
One  pound  of  formaline,  costing  not  more  than  50  cents,  will 
make  thirty  gallons  of  the  disinfecting  solution  and  is  enough  to 
treat  fifty  bushels  of  potatoes.  If  the  solution  stands  a  long  time 
it  will  probably  lose  strength. 

Exposing  to  Light. — If  the  tubers  are  exposed  to  the  full  sun- 
light for  several  weeks  before  planting  the  scab  germs  will  be 
largely  destroyed.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  turn  such  potatoes 
occasionally  in  order  to  expose  them  fully  to  the  light. 

Blight  of  Potatoes  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  potatoes,  and  sometimes  even  the  tubers  are  affected. 
It  is  most  prevalent  during  moist,  warm  weather,  when  some- 
times the  fungus  may  be  seen  as  a  delicate  white  mildew  on  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  the  potato  vines.  In  seasons  favorable  to  it, 
the  tops  of  an  entire  field  may  be  killed  in  a  few  days  from  the 
time  the  disease  was  first  noticed;  at  other  times  the  tops  die  so 
gradually  that  it  is  mistaken  for  a  natural  dying  of  the  vines. 
Rotting  of  the  tubers  often  follows  the  dying  of  the  tops.  It  has 
been  quite  clearly  shown  that  this  disease  may  be  kept  in  check 
or  the  trouble  entirely  prevented  by  spraying  the  tops  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  occasionally.  It  is,  however,  somewhat  doubt- 
ful about  the  benefits  being  sufficiently  certain  in  this  section  to 
justify  the  expense;  but  should  this  disease  become  more  abun- 
dant it  may  prove  to  be  a  paying  operation.  The  cost  of  treating 
one  acre  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is  about  $5.  There  is  lit- 
tle use  of  applying  this  material  after  the  damage  from  the  dis- 


POTATO.  203 

ease  is  apparent,  as  it  must  be  used  as  a  preventive  and  used 
before  the  disease  is  seen. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  is  made  as  follows:  Dissolve  five  pounds 
of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper)  in  ten  gallons  of  water  in  a 
wooden  or  earthenware  vessel.  As  this  substance  dissolves  very 
slowly  in  cold  water  and  solutions  of  it  are  very  heavy,  it  is  well 
to  suspend  it  near  the  top  of  the  water.  (It  dissolves  more 
quickly  in  hot  water.)  In  another  vessel,  slake  five  pounds  of 
good  fresh  quicklime  in  ten  gallons  of  water.  When  the  mixture 
is  wanted,  pour  the  blue  vitriol  and  lime  slowly  at  the  same  time 
into  a  barrel  containing  thirty  gallons  of  water,  stirring  all  the 
time.  When  thoroughly  stirred  the  mixture  should  be  of  a  clear 
sky  blue  color.  After  being  mixed  for  a  day  or  two  the  mixture 
loses  much  of  its  strength,  so  it  is  well  to  use  only  that  which 
has  been  mixed  for  a  short  time.  There  are  many  formulas  used, 
which  vary  as  to  the  amount  of  lime  and  water,  but  the  above 
gives  good  satisfaction  when  used  properly. 

Internal  Brown  Rot  is  the  name  given  to  a  disease  which 
has  recently  appeared  in  a  few  potato  growing  sections  of  this 
country.  It  is  first  noticed  by  the  darkening  more  or  less  of  the 
starchy  portion  of  the  tubers,  without  any  manifestation  of  its 

presence  on  the  outside;  later 
on  the  potato  rots.  The  life 
history  of  this  disease  is  not 
known,  nor  are  any  remedies 
known  for  it.  Ordinary  pru- 
dence, however,  would  indi- 
cate that  seed  potatoes  in  the 

Figure  lu2.— inter nal  brown  rot  of  the        least    affected    with    this    trOU- 

potato-  ble  should  not  be  planted. 

EGG  PLANT.     (Solanum  melongena.) 

Native  of  South  America. — Annual. — Stem  erect  and  branch- 
ing; flowers  solitary  and  violet  in  color;  seeds  flat,  of  medium 
size.  The  egg  plant  is  but  little  used  in  this  section,  but  can  be 
grown  to  perfection  in  our  hot,  dry  summers.  The  seed  must 
be  sown,  even  earlier  than  tomato  seed,  in  the  greenhouse  or  hot- 
bed, but  when  only  a  few  plants  are  wanted  it  will  be  found  best 


204  VEGETABLE    GARDENING, 

to  buy  the  plants,  as  they  require  delicate  handling.  The  plants 
are  set  in  rows  three  by  two  feet  apart,  after 
the  ground  is  well  warmed  up,  which  is  seldom 
before  the  10th  of  June. 

The   fruit    attains   marketable    size  by  the 
last  of  August.     The  plants  are  very  liable  to 
the    attacks  of    the   potato    beetle.      The   best 
variety  is  the  New  York  Purple,  but  the  variety 
Figure  103.— Eg-g-    g"rown  as  the  Long  Purple  is  somewhat  earlier. 
Plant. 

TOMATO.  (Lycopersicum  esculentum.) 
Native  of  South  America. — Perennial,  but  generally  treated 
as  an  annual. — The  tomato  is  a  branching  plant,  generally  with 
flexible  stems  that  require  support  to  grow  erect.  Its  flowers  are 
yellowish  and  grow  in  loose  clusters  on  the  stem,  opposite  or 
nearly  opposite  leaves,  not  axiliary;  fruit,  a  true  berry,  red, 
pink  or  yellow  in  color;  seed,  kidney-shaped,  flat,  with  a  rough- 
ened surface.  In  many  parts  of  this  section,  the  tomato  can  be 
successfully  grown  as  a  market  crop,  and  there  is  no  place 
where  it  cannot  he  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  for  home  use. 
The  cultivation  of  this  vegetable  for  canning  purposes  is  already 
occupying  the  attention  of  farmers  in  a  few  localities  in  this  sec- 
tion, and  it  is  an  industry  that  is  destined  to  greatly  increase  in 
the  future.  It  is  one  of  the  easiest  and  surest  crops  to  grow, 
providing  one  has  good  plants  to  start  with. 

Growing  the  Plants. — It  is  especially  important  to  sow  the 
seed  before  the  first  of  April,  and  the  middle  of  March  is  thought 
about  the  right  time  by  most  growers.  The  seed  grows  easily 
but  needs  considerable  heat  and  rich  soil  to  do  its  best.  The 
plants  should  be  transplanted  after  they  have  their  second  leaves 
and  again  when  they  get  crowded,  so  that  they  may  become 
stocky  and  strong.  The  seed  may  be  started  in  greenhouses  or 
hotbeds;  it  is  also  easily  grown  in  window  boxes.  If  too  close 
together,  they  grow  weak  and  poor.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  plants  should  be  well  hardened  off  before  they  are  set  in 
the  open  ground. 

The  land  preferred  for  tomatoes  is  a  rich,  retentive  sandy 
loam,  but  they  will  do  fairly  well  on  almost  any  well  drained 


TOMATO. 


205 


soil,  and  even  if  on  rather  poor  soil  will  do  better  than  most 
crops.  A  southern  slope  is  preferable,  but  they  will  ripen  almost 
anywhere  if  properly  managed.  The  tomato  pre-eminently  needs 
a  warm  place,  and  if  rich  manure  is  plowed  into  the  soil  it  is 
beneficial,  since  by  its  fermentation  it  raises  the  temperature  of 
the  land. 

Transplanting  and  After-cultivation. — The  plants  should  be 
moved  to  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  all  danger  of  severe  frost 
is  past,  which  will  generally  be  about  the  20th  of  May  in  south- 
ern Minnesota  and  not  until  the  1st  of  June  in  more  northern 
sections.  They  should  be  set  about  five  feet  apart  each  way 
and  about  six  inches  deep.  If  the  stems  of  the  plants  when 
planted  out  are  very  long,  they  should  be  partly  buried  under 
ground.  They  need  thorough  cultivation,  which  can  best  be  given 
by  a  horse  cultivator  on  a  large  scale. 

Pruning  and  Training. — Tomato  plants  under  field  cultivation 

are  generally  allowed 
to  run  over  the  ground 
in  any  direction  and 
are  not  trained;  but  even 
under  this  method  of 
management  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  cut  off  a  foot  or 
more  of  the  ends  of  all 
growing  shoots  about 
the  middle  of  August  if 
they  are  growing  rap- 
idly, so  that  all  the 
strength  of  the  plant 
may  go  to  ripen  the  fruit 
that  is  well  formed  and 
still  green.  Some  grow- 
ers advise  pruning  off 
all  but  one  main  stem 
and  two  or  three  laterals 
and  training  to  a  stake, 

Figure   104. — Tomato   plant   growing   in   a     and  then  pinching  off  all 

barrel    and    trained    against    side     of      «^„T ^i„„+^  „    „*+^ 

building.  flower  clusters   after  a 

few  have  set  fruit.    The  result  of  this  practice  here  is  still  some- 


206  VEGETABLE    GARDENING. 

what  doubtful.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  a  small  garden  to  cover  the 
land  under  the  vines  after  they  set  fruit  with  a  little  hay,  so 
that  the  fruit  may  be  kept  from  getting  dirty  in  case  they  are 
not  trained.  This  covering  should  not  be  heavy  enough  to  keep 
the  ground  from  getting  plenty  of  sunlight. 

Tomatoes  in  Very  Severe  Locations. — When  there  is  danger 
of  frost  in  August,  a  sufficient  supply  of  tomatoes  for  family  use 
may  be  grown  on  the  south  side  of  a  house,  wall  or  other  protec- 


Figure  105.— Varieties  of  Tomatoes.  1— Dwarf  Champion.  2— New  Imperial. 
3 — Thorburn.  4 — Virginia  Corker.  5-  Landreth's  110  Days.  6 — Landreth's 
95  Days.  7— Landreth's  100  Days.  8— Landreth's  105  Days.  9-Landreth's 
115  Days.  10— Waldorf.  11— Lrandreth's  105  Days.  12-Fordhook  First. 
13— Early  Wilcox.     14— Clover  Crest  Giant. 

tion,  especially  if  the  plants  are  covered  on  cold  nights.  Where 
this  seems  to  be  impracticable,  a  most  excellent  way  is  to  grow 
a  few  plants  in  barrels  placed  in  warm  corners  about  the  build- 
ings. To  do  this,  at  planting  time  select  a  barrel  as  large  as  a 
coal  oil  barrel,  bore  three  or  four  holes  in  the  bottom,  sink  the 
barrel  about  one-third  its  depth  in  the  ground  and  pack  the 
earth  around  it.  Fill  it  about  half  full  of  fresh  horse  manure  well 
tramped  down  and  pour  a  bucketful  of  hot  water  on  this  manure. 
Then  put  on  eight  inches  of  good  soil  and  then  a  mixture  of  well- 
rotted  manure  and  rich  black  loam  in  about  equal  quantities, 
until  you  reach  within  about  twelve  inches  of  the  top  of  the 


TOMATO.  207 

barrel;  then  heap  up  manure  around  the  outside.  Set  three 
plants  in  this  and  trim  to  two  shoots  each.  Train  one  of  these 
shoots  from  each  plant  to  stakes  or  near-by  building,  but  allow 
the  other  three  shoots  to  grow  naturally  over  the  sides  of  the 
barrel.  Be  careful  to  give  plenty  of  water  daily — a  gallon  each 
day  will  be  none  too  much.  Three  or  four  old  barrels  treated  in 
this  way  and  placed  in  sunny  exposure  will  produce  all  the  toma- 
toes needed  by  a  family  of  four  or  five  persons. 

Prolonging  the  Tomato  Season. — In  autumn  the  tomato  sea- 
son may  be  prolonged  by  pulling  the  plants  with  the  unripened 
fruit  on  them  and  hanging  them  in  a  shed,  where  they  will 
continue  to  ripen  fruit  for  some  time.  The  larger  tomatoes  will 
ripen  very  well  if  picked  off  and  kept  in  a  shady  place. 

Saving  Tomato  Seed. — Tomato  seed  should  be  saved  from 
the  best  tomatoes  from  vines  producing  the  largest  amount  of 
good  fruit.  The  tomatoes  should  be  thrown  into  a  barrel  as 
fast  as  they  ripen  and  be  allowed  to  ferment  until  the  seed 
separates  readily  from  the  pulp,  when  they  should  be  put  into 
water  and  thoroughly  stirred.  The  skin  and  pulp  being  lighter, 
the  seed  is  readily  separated  from  it.  The  seed  should  be  dried 
at  once  by  spreading  it  out  thinly  in  a  dry  place. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  tomatoes  adapted 
to  general  cultivation.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  Acme  and 
Dwarf  Champion,  which  are  early,  smooth  kinds  having  a 
pink  skin.  Of  the  red-skinned  sorts  Perfection  and  Beauty  are 
very  good.  The  earliest  varieties  are  not  always  the  best  to 
grow  for  a  general  crop,  as  they  are  inferior  to  the  varieties  men- 
tioned. However,  in  many  unfavorable  locations  it  may  be  best 
to  grow  them,  as  they  do  very  well  for  home  use.  Of  these 
the  earliest  is  called  Earliest  of  All,  but  there  are  several  other 
very  early  kinds. 

Insects. — The  tomato  is  subject  to  few  insect  pests.  It  is 
sometimes  attacked  by  the  potato  beetle.  The  remedy  is  Paris 
green  and  water,  as  recommended  for  the  same  insect  when  it 
attacks  the  potato. 

Tomato  Rot. — There  are  several  diseases  that  attack  the 
tomato  when  grown  in  greenhouses,  but  only  that  known  as  the 
"rot"  is  often  seriously  injurious  to  plants  grown  in  the  open 


208 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


field.  This  is  a  fungous  disease,  the  germs  of  which  lodge  in 
the  end  of  the  fruit  when  it  is  very  small,  probably  often  just 
as  the  flowers  fall  off.  By  their  growth,  they  rot  the  end  of  the 
tomato  and  often  cause  much  loss. 


Figure  106— Tomato  rot. 

Remedies. — The  disease  lives  over  winter  in  the  ground 
where  the  rotten  tomatoes  have  fallen.  The  diseased  fruit  should 
therefore  be  gathered  and  burned  or  buried  a  foot  or  more 
deep,  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed  in  the  spring.  Some  varie- 
ties are  much  more  liable  to  rot  than  others.  The  Dwarf  Cham- 
pion is  perhaps  less  affected  than  many  other  kinds.  Experi- 
ments with  spraying  the  young  fruit  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  a 
solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium  at  the  rate  of  one-half  ounce 
per  gallon,  are  said  to  Lave  given  good  results  in  some  cases,  but 
it  is  generally  considered  impracticable  to  do  this,  on  account 
of  the  labor  necessary  to  do  the  work  well.  They  are  less  liable 
to  rot  when  growing  on  new  land  than  on  land  that  has  been 
used  for  several  years  in  tomatoes. 

GROUND  CHERRY,  or  STRAWBERRY  TOMATO.  (Physalis  sp.) 
Native  of  North  and  South  America. — Perennial. — There  are 
several  species  of  Physalis  that  produce  edible  fruit.  Among 
those  indigenous  to  northern  United  States  is  one  quite  common 
in  old  timber  land  in  northern  Minnesota  and  elsewhere.     The 


PEPPERS. 


209 


fruit  resembles  a  tomato  but  is  about  the  size  of  a  cherry  and  is 
enclosed  in  a  husk  formed  of  the 
calyx.  The  seed  is  dark  colored,  flat 
and  round.  The  fruit  is  used  for  pre- 
serves and  sauces. 

Culture. — It  is  a  plant  of  the  earli- 
est culture  and  when  once  sown  gen- 
erally covers  the  ground  in  following 
years  from  self  sown  seed.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  about  the  first  of 
May.  The  plants  spread  about  thirty 
inches. 

PEPPERS.  (Capsicum  annuum.) 
Native  of  South  America. — Peren- 
nial, but  in  cultivation  grown  as  an 
annual. — There  are  many  varieties, 
differing  chiefly  in  the  shape  of  their 
fruit.  All  of  them  have  erect, 
branching  stems,  which  become  al- 
most woody.  The  leaves  are  spear- 
shaped;  flowers,  white,  star-shaped,  solitary  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves;  fruit  generally  hollow  with  a  somewhat  fleshy  skin,  at 
first  dark  green,  but  when  ripe  turning  yellow,  red  or  dark 
violet.  The  seeds  are  flat,  and,  like  the  flesh  of  the  pods,  have 
a  very  acrid,  burning  taste,  for  which  the  plant  is  cultivated  and 
used  in  giving  flavor  to  pickles,  etc.  Their  germinating  power 
lasts  about  four  years  after  being  separated,  but  if  left  in  the 
pods  they  will  keep  much  longer  without  injury. 


gure    107-Ground    Cherry 
or  Strawberry  Tomato. 


Culture. — Peppers  need  practically  the  same  cultivation  as 
the  tomato  or  egg  plant,  except  that  they  may  be  planted  two 
feet  apart,  in  rows  three  lieet  apart. 

Varieties  vary  much  in  the  shape  of  the  pods  and  the  acridity 
of  their  juice.    The  kinds  most  commonly  grown  are  as  follows: 

Ruby  King. — Fruit  very  large,  bright  red,  smooth,  mild  fla- 
vored and  prolific.     The  best  for  general  use. 


210  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Long  Red  Cayenne. — Fruit  long  and  slender.     Very  pungent. 


Figure  108— Varieties  of  Peppers.  1— Bird's  Eye.  2— Tomato  Shaped.  3— New 
Orleans.  4— Golden  Beli.  5— Very  Small  Cayenne.  6— Sweet  Spanish. 
7— Cluster.    8— Ruby  King,    q— Celestial.     (After  Landreth.) 

THE    MARTYNA    FAMILY.     (Order   Martiniaceae.) 
MARTYNIA.     (Martynia  probosidea.) 
Native  of  southwestern  United  States. — Annual. — A  coarse- 
growing,  spreading  plant,  having  a  peculiar  shaped  fruit  that  is 
used  for  pickles.     The  flowers  are  large,  irregular  and  rather 
pretty.     The  fruit  is  tender  when  young 
but  is  nearly  as  hard  as  horn  when  ripe. 
The  seeds  are  black  with  a  rough  surface. 
Culture. — This   is  a  plant  of  the  easi- 
est culture.     The  seed  should  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  soil  settles  in  the  spring,  in 
hills   about  three   feet   apart   each   way. 
Where  seeds  are  allowed  to  ripen,  plants 
usually     appear    the     following     spring. 
There  is  onlv  one  kind. 

Figure  109— Martynia. 

THE    GOURD    FAMILY.       (Order   Cucurbitaceae.) 
The  gourd  family  is  made  up  of  mostly  tendril  bearing  herbs, 


SQUASH.  211 

with  succulent  but  not  fleshy  herbage,  watery  juice,  alternate 
palmately  ribbed  and  mostly  angled  or  lobed  leaves,  pistillate 
and  staminate  flowers  separate  and  both  kinds  generally  on  the 
same  plant.  Calyx  grown  to  ovary,  petals  commonly  united, 
stamens  usually  three,  of  which  one  has  a  one-celled  and  the 
others  two-celled  anthers,  but  commonly  the  anthers  are  much 
twisted  and  often  all  combined  into  a  head  and  the  filaments  are 
sometimes  grown  into  a  column.  The  fruit  is  unusually  fleshy 
and  the  seed  is  flat  and  made  up  entirely  of  embryo.  It  is 
commonly  believed  that  some  of  the  species  in  this  group  readily 
cross,  but  if  it  occurs  at  all  it  is  but  rarely,  and  squash  and 
pumpkins  have  never  been  successfully  crossed  with  melons. 
Besides  the  squash,  pumpkin,  muskmelon,  watermelon  and 
cucumbers,  whose  cultural  directions  are  here  given,  there  occurs 
here  the  gourds  and  wild  cucumbers  of  the  gardens. 

SQUASH.  (Cucurbita.) 
The  term  squash  does  not  signify  any  botanical  division, 
but  is  an  American  name  that  is  applied  to  a  large  number  of 
varieties  of  gourds  which  in  common  parlance  have  come  to 
be  classified  separately.  The  term  often  includes  what  are 
sometimes  called  pumpkins. 

The  term  gourd  is  applied  to  all  the  members  of  Cucurbita 
pepo  and  includes  the  Scallop  and  Crookneck  Squashes,  field 
pumpkins  and  the  small,  very  hard-shelled  fruits  of  many 
shapes  and  colors  borne  on  slender  vines  that  are  grown  chiefly 
as  curiosities  under  the  name  of  gourds.  The  latter  are  what  are 
commonly  known  as  gourds. 

Pollenizing  the  Flowers. — The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the 
cucumber  and  melon,  being  separate  on  the  same  vine.  The 
pistillate  flower  is  produced  at  the  end  of  the  miniature  squash; 
the  staminate  flower  is  often  called  the  "false  blossom,"  and  its 
office  is  to  produce  pollen  only.  They  are  naturally  pollenized  by 
\insects. 

The  crop  is  made  more  certain  by  having  bees  near  by  to 
bllenize  the  flowers.  In  some  places,  the  absence  of  many  in- 
jts  is  the  reason  why  cucumbers,  melons  and  squashes,  which 
similar  in  the  construction  of  their  flowers,  fail  to  produce 
eh   fruit,   though   the    vines   may   grow    freely.      This    is    a 


210  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Long  Red  Cayenne. — Fruit  long  and  slender.     Very  pungent. 


Figure  108— Varieties  of  Peppers.  1— Bird's  Eye.  2— Tomato  Shaped.  3— New 
Orleans.  4— Golden  Beli.  5— Very  Small  Cayenne.  6— Sweet  Spanish. 
7— Cluster.     8— Ruby  King.    9— Celestial.     (After  Landretk.) 

THE    MARTYNA    FAMILY.     (Order    Martiniaceae.) 
MARTYNIA.     (Martynia  probosidea.) 
Native  of  southwestern  United  States. — Annual. — A  coarse- 
growing,  spreading  plant,  having  a  peculiar  shaped  fruit  that  is 
used  for  pickles.     The  flowers  are  large,  irregular  and  rather 
pretty.     The  fruit  is  tender  when  young 
but  is  nearly  as  hard  as  horn  when  ripe. 
The  seeds  are  black  with  a  rough  surface. 
Culture. — This   is  a  plant  of  the  easi- 
est culture.     The  seed  should  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  soil  settles  in  the  spring,  in 
hills   about  three   feet   apart   each   way. 
Where  seeds  are  allowed  to  ripen,  plants 
usually     appear     the     following     spring. 
There  is  onlv  one  kind. 


Figure  109— Martynia. 
THE    GOURD    FAMILY. 


(Order  Cucurbitaceae.) 


The  gourd  family  is  made  up  of  mostly  tendril  bearing  herbs, 


SQUASH.  211 

with  succulent  but  not  fleshy  herbage,  watery  juice,  alternate 
palmately  ribbed  and  mostly  angled  or  lobed  leaves,  pistillate 
and  staminate  flowers  separate  and  both  kinds  generally  on  the 
same  plant.  Calyx  grown  to  ovary,  petals  commonly  united, 
stamens  usually  three,  of  which  one  has  a  one-celled  and  the 
others  two-celled  anthers,  but  commonly  the  anthers  are  much 
twisted  and  often  all  combined  into  a  head  and  the  filaments  are 
sometimes  grown  into  a  column.  The  fruit  is  unusually  fleshy 
and  the  seed  is  flat  and  made  up  entirely  of  embryo.  It  is 
commonly  believed  that  some  of  the  species  in  this  group  readily 
cross,  but  if  it  occurs  at  all  it  is  but  rarely,  and  squash  and 
pumpkins  have  never  been  successfully  crossed  with  melons. 
Besides  the  squash,  pumpkin,  muskmelon,  watermelon  and 
cucumbers,  whose  cultural  directions  are  here  given,  there  occurs 
here  the  gourds  and  wild  cucumbers  of  the  gardens. 

SQUASH.     (Cucurbita.) 

The  term  squash  does  not  signify  any  botanical  division, 
but  is  an  American  name  that  is  applied  to  a  large  number  of 
varieties  of  gourds  which  in  common  parlance  have  come  to 
be  classified  separately.  The  term  often  includes  what  are 
sometimes  called  pumpkins. 

The  term  gourd  is  applied  to  all  the  members  of  Cucurbita 
pepo  and  includes  the  Scallop  and  Crookneck  Squashes,  field 
pumpkins  and  the  small,  very  hard-shelled  fruits  of  many 
shapes  and  colors  borne  on  slender  vines  that  are  grown  chiefly 
as  curiosities  under  the  name  of  gourds.  The  latter  are  what  are 
commonly  known  as  gourds. 

Pollenizing  the  Flowers. — The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the 
cucumber  and  melon,  being  separate  on  the  same  vine.  The 
pistillate  flower  is  produced  at  the  end  of  the  miniature  squash; 
the  staminate  flower  is  often  called  the  "false  blossom,"  and  its 
office  is  to  produce  pollen  only.  They  are  naturally  pollenized  by 
insects. 

The  crop  is  made  more  certain  by  having  bees  near  by  to 
p»ollenize  the  flowers.  In  some  places,  the  absence  of  many  in- 
serts is  the  reason  why  cucumbers,  melons  and  squashes,  which 
are 'j  similar  in  the  construction  of  their  flowers,  fail  to  produce 
mucA   fruit,   though   the   vines   may    grow    freely.      This    is    a 


212 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


common  complaint  in  some  new  prairie  sections,  as  there  is 
often  a  deficiency  of  pollenizing  insects  in  such  places.  Where 
small  cucumbers,  squashes  and  melons  fall  off  and  fail  to  mature, 


Figure   110. — Flowers   on   the   Squash.      To  the  left  two  staminate  (male 
flowers;  to  the  right  two  pistillate   (female)   flowers. 

this  matter  of  pollenization  should  be  closely  looked  into,  and  if 
insects  are  not  present  the  work  can  be  quickly  and  easily  done 
by  hand.  For  this  purpose  a  rather  large  camel's  hair  brush  is 
used  which  can  be  filled  at  one  time  with  enough  pollen  from  a 
few  male  flowers  to  pollenize  twenty  or  more  female  flowers. 

The  seed'  is  oval  and  flat  generally  white  or  yellow,  but 
varies  greatly  in  size.  There  is  a  common  belief  among  garden- 
ers that  vines  from  old  seed  do  not  grow  so  strong  as  those 
from  new  seed  and  produce  more  fruit.  This  seems  to  be  bo?;-ne 
out  by  some  experiments. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  the  squash  and  the  pumpkin 


SQUASH.  213 

is  much  the  same  as  for  cucumbers.  About  six  seeds  should 
be  put  in  each  hill.  The  hills  should  be  eight  feet  apart  each 
way  for  the  longer  growing  kinds  and  five  feet  apart  for  the 
bush  sorts  The  plants  should  be  thinned  out  after  they  are 
established  so  as  to  allow  two  plants  to  each  hill.  They  are 
affected  by  the  same  insect  pests  as  the  cucumber  and  the 
same  remedies  are  in  order.  In  addition,  however,  to  these, 
some  kinds  are  affected  in  the  eastern  states  by  a  borer  which 
works  in  the  stem,  and  by  the  squash  bug.  (See  chapter  on  in- 
sects.) 

The  early  varieties  of  the  squash  are  sometimes  started  in 
hotbeds  or  cold  frames  to  advance  them  and  thus  avoid  serious 
injury  from  the  striped  beetle. 

Harvesting.— Summer  squash  are  not  grown  for  storing  and 
are  not  desirable  for  table  use  except  before  the  skin  hardens, 
when  they  are  used  entire.  Winter  squash  are  excellent  for  use 
in  a  green  state  but  are  not  gathered  for  storing  until  the  skm 
is  hard  They  should  always  be  gathered  upon  the  approach  of 
frosty  weather,  as  a  very  little  frost  injures  their  keeping  quali- 
ties, although  the  injury  may  not  be  apparent  when  gathered. 
It  is'  a  good  plan  in  harvesting  them  to  place  them  in  piles  in  the 
field  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  day  and 
covering  them  with  the  vines  or  other  material  every  frosty 
night  until  they  are  thoroughly  dried  and  the  skins  have  become 
hard  and  flinty.  In  gathering,  cut  the  stem  off  not  over  an  inch 
f  rom  the  squash,  for  it  the  stem  is  left  on  it  is  liable  to  be  used  as 
a  handle  and  be  broken  off  and  thus  leave  a  spot  that  is  very 
sure  to  start  to  rotting.  Squashes  should  be  handled  with  the 
greatest  care  if  they  are  to  be  kept  successfully,  and  each  one 
should  be  placed  in  the  wagon  or  on  the  shelf  separately;  if 
handled  roughly  they  will  not  keep.  They  should  be  carried  in  a 
spring  wagon  or  on  a  bed  of  hay  or  straw. 

storing.— Winter  squash  keep  best  in  a  dry  atmosphere  and 
at\  a  cool  temperature.  They  will,  however,  keep  well  in  a  warm 
oil  ever  hot  cellar  or  room,  providing  it  is  dry,  but  will  quickly 
rot  m  a  moist  atmosphere.  They  will  shrink  more  in  weight  in 
a  v,arm  than  in  a  cool  place.  They  should  be  laid  on  shelves 
one  tier  deep,  and  never  piled  up  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  them 


214 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


long.  When  well  hardened  without  exposure  to  frost  before  stor- 
ing and  kept  dry,  many  of  the  winter  sorts  are  easily  kept  until 
March. 

The  quality  of  squash  varies  somewhat  according  to  the 
land  on  which  it  is  grown.  Sandy  loam  is  generally  believed  to 
produce  the  best  flavored  dry  flesh  squash,  but  the  quality  also 
varies  according  to  the  season. 

Summer   Varieties. — (Cucurbita   pepo.) — Summer   Crookneck 


Figure  111.— Varieties  of  summer  squashes. 
Crookaeck.  Boston  Marrow.  Scalloped, 

is  a  summer  sort,  generally  with  a  crooked  neck,  that  is  highly 
esteemed.     A  form  of  this  with  a  straight  neck  is  also  grown. 

Bush  Scalloped. — Yellow  and  white  varieties  of  this  for 
summer  use  are  much  grown  by  market  gardeners,  differing  from 
each  other  only  ir  color  of  the  skin.  They  are  round-flat  an'd 
have  a  scalloped  edge. 

Boston  Marrow. — Much  grown  for  marketing  and  very  highly 
esteemed  for  summer  and  fall  use. 

Orange  Marrow — A  form  of  the  Boston  Marrow. 

Fall  and  Winter  Varieties. — (Cucurbita  maxima.) — Hub- 
bard.— This  is  the  best  known  and  most  largely  grown  of  the 
winter  varieties.  It  varies  somewhat  in  form,  is  generally  dai-k 
green  in  color  and  sometimes  marked  with  red.  When  W'311 
grown  it  has  a  rough  shell  of  flinty  hardness  and  thick,  heavy 
flesh  that  cooks  dry.  The  quality  varies  much  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  land  on  which  it  is  grown,  sandy  loam  generally 
producing  the  be&t. 


SQUASH.  21S 

Marblehead  is  a  variety  that  resembles  the  Hubbard  in  qual- 
ity of  flesh    and  by  many  is  considered  superior.    It  differ,  from 
he  Huoba'rd  in  form  and  eolor,  is  ashy  gray  and  the  flesh  U 


Figure  112— Hubbard  Squash. 

much  thinner.  It  yields  less  in  weight  but  generally  produces 
more  squashes  per  acre. 

Essex  Hybrid.-Very  fine  grained,  rich,  sweet,  and  a  good 
keeper;   excellent  for  autumn  and  winter. 

Bay  State.— A  good  variety. 

Miscellaneous  Varieties.-Winter  Crookneck.-One  of  the 
hardiest,  most  reliable  and  best  keeping  squashes,  but  in 
quality  no  better  than  some  of  the  pumpkins.  Very  little  in 
demand  for  marketing,  but  popular  in  some  sections  for  home 

use. 

Cocoanut,  Perfect  Gem  and  Chestnut  are  varieties  produc- 
ing a  large  number  of  small  squashes  of  excellent  quality  and 
are  very  easily  raised. 

PUMPKIN.     (Cucurbita  pepo.) 

Native    of    warm    climates.— Annual.— Under   the    name    of 

pumpkin  are  grouped  a  number  of  gourds,   greatly  varying  in 

shape,  color,  size  and  quality.  Some  of  them  are  very  good  for 

cooking  purposes,  but  they  are  not  generally  esteemed  for  table 


Figure  113— Cheese  Pumpkin. 


216  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

use  by  those  who  have  become  accustomed  to  the  better  kinds 
of  squashes;  some  of  them  are  great  yielders  and  are  used  for 
feeding  cattle.    They  may  be  grown  as  recommended  for  squash 

or,  as  is  most  commonly 
practiced,  grown  amongst 
the  corn,  where  the  seed  is 
planted  as  soon  as  warm 
weather  is  assured.  The 
seed  varies  much  in  size. 
For  remarks  on  its  flowers 
and  pollination  see  squash 
with  which  they  are  nearly 
identical. 

The  variety  most  generally  grown  is  known  as  Connecticut 
Field,  which  is  of  large  size  and  is  used  mainly  for  feeding  stock. 
Sugar  and  Cheese  pumpkins  are  varieties  much  grown  for  cook- 
ing purposes. 

MUSKMELON.     (Cucumis  melo.) 

Native  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia. — Annual. — Cultivated  from 
a  very  remote  period  of  antiquity.  It  resembles  the  cucumber 
in  habit  of  growth,  and,  like  it  and  the  squash,  the  different 
sexes  of  flowers  are  separate  on  the  same  plant  and  in  nature  re- 
quire the  agency  of  insects  to  pollenize  them;  however,  they  may 
be  pollenized  by  hand,  and  the  directions  for  pollenizing  cucumber 
flowers  apply  here.  In  quite  a  few  cases  the  flowers  of  the  musk- 
melon  are  perfect,  that  is,  have  both  stamens  and  pistils;  but 
it  is  likely  that  even  in  these  cases  cross-fertilization  is  neces- 
sary. The  seed  resembles  cucumber  seed  in  size  and  form. 
The  fruit  varies  in  shape  but  is  commonly  round  or  oval.  The 
flesh  varies  in  color  from  nearly  white  to  deep  orange.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  healthful  and  delicious  of  fruits,  and  our  warm, 
bright  summers  are  especially  favorable  to  its  growth.  As  far 
north  as  Minneapolis,  this  fruit  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to  glut 
the  markets  in  September. 

Culture. — The  culture  of  muskmelons  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  recommended  for  cucumbers,  and  the  insect  pests  are 
also  the  same.  A  warm  soil  is,  if  anything,  more  desirable  for 
this   crop   than   for   cucumbers,   and   in   moist   seasons    it    does 


MUSKMELON.  217 

especially  well  on  very  sandy  land,  providing  it  has  been  well 
manured.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  vines 
after  they  have  grown  several  feet  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  out 
the  laterals  on  which  the  fruit  is  borne,  although  this  is  not 
customary  in  growing  them  on  a  large  scale.  Late  settings  of 
fruit  may  be  removed  to  advantage  in  September,  as  they  then 
have  not  time  to  mature.  The  fruit  is  not  ripe  until  the  stem 
separates  easily  from  it.    Fruit  ripened  on  the  vine  is  of  the  best 


Figure  114— Mus=k melons.      1— California  Citron.     2— White  Japan.     3— Miller's 
Cream.    4— Extra  Early. 

quality,  but  for  shipping  purposes  it  should  be  picked  when  still 
green.  Almost  without  exception,  melons  with  finely  netted  skins 
are  of  better  quality  than  those  with  smooth  or  coarsely  netted 
skins.  So  true  is  this  that  buyers  often  refuse  to  buy  the  smooth 
kinds.  In  order  to  make  the  fruit  ripen,  earlier  and  to  avoid  the 
attacks  of  the  striped  beetle,  the  plants  are  often  started  in  pots 
and  on  sods  in  hotbeds  or  frames,  as  recommended  for  cucum- 
bers. It  is  a  good  plan  also  to  place  a  piece  of  glass  or  board 
under  the  melons  when  those  of  the  best  quality  are  desired, 
since  this  keeps  them  off  the  ground,  and  they  ripen  more  evenly 
in  consequence. 

Varieties. — Melons  vary  much  in  size,  form,  color  of  skin 
and  flesh  and  in  quality.  There  are  many  kinds,  but  only  a  few 
are  referred  to  here. 

Christiana,  or  Early  Christiana  is  a  popular  melon,  of  extra 
good  quality,  with  salmon  colored  flesh. 


218 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


Osage,  or  Miller's  Cream. — A  large  melon  having  firm 
salmon  colored  flesh,  very  productive  and  highly  esteemed  for 
the  market  and  home  garden.  Perhaps,  the  best  shipping  sort 
now  grown. 

California  Citron  muskmelon  is  a  variety  especially  popular 
in  some  northern  markets  for  home  market  and  for  shipping. 

Emerald  Gem  is  a  very  prolific  melon,  with  small  hut  very 
superior  fruit  that  is  valuable  for  home  use. 

WATERMELON.     (Citrullis  vulgaris.) 
Native    of   Africa. — Annual. — A    vine    of   the    same    general 
habit    as    the    muskmelon,    but    the    leaves    are    deeply    lobed, 


Figure  115— Varieties  of  Watermelons.     1— Iron  Clad.     2— Cuban  Queen.     3— 
L»ight  Ice  Rind.    4 — Monte  Cristo.    5 — Dark  Ice  Rind. 

and  the  whoie  plant  is  covered  with  soft,  grayish  hairs  that 
give  it  a  grayish  aspect.  The  flowers  are  the  same  in  general 
structure  as  those  of  the  cucumber  or  muskmelon.    The  seeds  are 


WATERMELON.  219 

large  but  vary  much  in  size,  color  and  markings.  The  fruit 
varies  in  color  of  skin  from  pale  yellow  to  deep  green  and  is 
often  mottled;  the  flesh  varies  from  white  to  pink  or  yellow. 
Some  are  tasteless  and  insipid  and  others  are  sugary  and  re- 
freshing. The  fruit  often  weighs  as  much  as  fifty  pounds  in  good 
seasons  when  grown  in  favorable  locations,  even  in  the  extreme 
northern  states. 

Culture. — The  method  of  culture  is  the  same  as  for  the 
cucumber  and  muskmelon,  with  the  exception  that  the  vines 
should  not  be  pinched,  and  they  require  rather  more  room  in 
which  to  grow.  They  should  be  planted  about  eight  feet  apart 
each  way. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  kinds  of  watermelons  offered  by 
seedsmen,  diiffering  from  one  another  in  many  particulars.  Sev- 
eral of  the  most  esteemed  are  the  following: 

Dark  and  Light  Icing,  or  Ice  Rind. — The  best  two  varieties 
for  general  use.     Well  adapted  for  home  use  or  marketing. 

Hungarian. — A  melon  of  good  quality,  adapted  for  the  home 
garden. 

Volga. — An  early  variety  with  light  colored  skin  and  very 
red  flesh.  Fruit  rather  small  but  of  excellent  quality  and  very 
productive. 

Citron,  or  Preserving  Melon. — Resembles  watermelon, but  the 
flesh  is  hard  and  only  fit  for  preserves.  There  is  but  a  limited 
demand  for  it. 

CUCUMBER.     (Cucumis  sativus.) 

Native  of  the  East  Indies. — Annual. — A  creeping  plant  with 
angular,  flexible  stems,  rough  to  touch  and  furnished  with  ten- 
drils. The  flowers  are  yellow,  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  some 
male,  others  female;  the  latter  flowers  are  on  the  ovary,  which 
later  becomes  the  cucumber.  The  plants  produce  flowers  and 
fruit  in  succession  over  a  long  season,  and  these  are  naturally 
pollenized  by  insects.  The  seed  is  long-oval  in  form  and  yellow- 
ish-white in  color. 

Cultivation. — The  land  for  cucumbers  should  be  a  deep,  rich, 
scmewbat  retentive  loam,  and  yet  this  vegetable  will  do  very  well 
with  only  moderately  favorable  conditions.  For  ordinary  use 
and  for  the  home  garden,  cucumber  seed  should  be  planted  after 


2J0  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

the  ground  is  warm,  say  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  May, 
but  it  may  be  planted  with  good  results  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
June.  It  is  quite  customary  to  furrow  out  the  land  six  feet 
apart  one  way,  mark  crossways  of  the  furrows  with  a  six  foot 
marker,  and  put  a  shovelful  of  well  rotted  manure  or  compost 
in  each  intersection.  Cover  this  manure  with  soil  and  plant  the 
cucumber  seed.  Of  course,  when  the  land  is  in  the  best  condition, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  put  manure  in  the  hills;  in  such  cases,  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  mark  out  both  ways  and  plant  at  the 
intersections.  About  ten  or  a  dozen  seeds  should  be  put  in 
each  hill  and  covered  about  one  inch  deep,  and  the  soil  packed 
over  the  seeds.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  and  after  each  rain, 
they  should  have  the  soil  loosened  around  them  They  should 
also  be  kept  dusted  until  well  established  with  Paris  green,  land 
plaster  or  some  other  dust,  to  keep  off  the  striped  beetles,  which 
are  often  very  troublesome  and  may  destroy  the  plants  when 
they  are  small  unless  preventive  measures  are  used.  (See 
chapter  on  insects.)  The  land  should  be  cultivated  both  ways 
until  the  vines  prevent  it,  so  that  very  litle  work  will  have  to  be 
done  by  hand.  About  tnree  good  plants  are  enough  for  each 
hill,  and  the  rest  should  be  removed  after  the  danger  from  serious 
insect  injuries  has  passed. 

Gathering  the  Crop. — If  for  table  use  or  for  marketing  in  a 
green  state,  the  cucumbers  are  gathered  when  full  grown  but  still 
green;  if  for  pickles,  the  cucumbers  are  gathered  as  soon  as  of 
the  required  size,  which  is  generally  when  they  are  about  three 
inches  long.  Some  factories  put  up  larger  and  some  smaller 
pickles  than  this  size.  To  gather  them  of  just  the  right  size 
requires  that  the  whole  bed  be  picked  over  about  once  in  two 
days.  This  is  a  matter  of  much  labor  and  is  generally  paid  for  by 
the  piece.  No  cucumbers  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  if  pickles 
or  table  cucumbers  are  wanted,  for  as  soon  as  seed  is  ripened  the 
plants  commence  to  die  off,  while  if  constantly  gathered  when 
green  and  not  allowed  to  ripen,  the  plants  will  continue  bearing 
a  long  time.  In  the  vicinity  of  pickling  factories,  cucumbers  for 
pickles  are  often  raised  in  large  quantities  as  a  farm  crop  and 
are  contracted  for  at  a  specified  price  per  thousand  or  per  hun- 
dred pounds,  for  the  season.    For  home    use  or  for  storing  and 


CUCUMBER. 


221 


marketing  in  the  winter,  the  cucumbers  are  packed  in  salt  or  salt 
brine  when  gathered.  Growers  generally  use  about  seven  pounds 
af  salt  to  a  bushel  of  cucumbers.  They  may  also  be  packed  in  dry 
salt  in  layers,  which  has  the  effect  of  taking  the  water  out  of  the 
cucumbers,  causing  them  to  shrivel  up  and  lie  in  their  own 
juice.  When  wanted  for  use  they  are  freshened  out  in  water, 
which  causes  those  that  are  shriveled  to  swell  up  plump;  they 
are  then  put  in  vinegar.  Cucumber  pickles  are  easily  kept  until 
the  following  spring  in  this  way,  but  when  kept  later  than  spring 
they  get  soft  and  are  not  so  desirable.  Cucumbers  will  stand  a 
great  amount  of  dry  weather  without  injury,  if  frequently  cul- 
tivated. 

Starting   Cucumbers   in   cold  frames   and   hotbeds   and   then 
transplanting  them  to  the  open  ground  when  all  clanger  of  frost 


Figure  116— Chicago  Pickling  Cucumber. 

is  over  is  a  common  practice  where  they  are  wanted  for  early 
use.  Under  this  system  the  seed  is  sown  in  old  strawberry  boxes, 
tomato  cans,  flower  pots,  etc.  Square  pieces  of  inverted  sod  are 
also  used  for  the  same  purpose,  four  or  five  seeds  being  sown  on 
each  piece  five  inches  cquare  and  covered  with  good  soil.  The 
plants  in  this  latter  case  root  into  the  sod  and  are  easily  moved. 
Starting  cucumbers  this  way  has  the  merit  of  advancing  the 
period  of  maturity  of  the  plants,  and  as  they  are  well  started 


222  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

when  set  out  there  is  little  danger  of  attacks  of  the  striped 
beetle,  and  the  fruit  is  earlier  than  when  sown  in  the  open 
ground.  In  following  out  this  plan,  the  seed  should  not  be  sown 
before  the  first  of  May,  or  the  plants  will  be  too  large  to  move 
well.  Before  the  plants  are  removed  from  the  frames  to  the 
open  ground,  they  should  be  exposed  without  the  sash  for  several 
days  until  well  hardened  off.  When  these  plants  are  moved  to  the 
open  ground,  they  should  be  set  rather  deeper  than  they  grew  in 
the  frames.  They  then  are  cultivated  the  same  as  plants  from 
seed  sown  in  the  hill.  Another  way  for  advancing  the  cucumber 
season  when  hotbed  sash  is  used  is  by  planting  a  hill  of  them 
very  early,  in  the  center  of  each  sash  of  the  hotbed,  while  the 
rest  of  each  sash  may  be  used  for  an  early  crop.  The  cucumbers 
will  not  need  much  room  for  several  weeks,  which  will  give  time 
to  grow  the  early  crop  and  get  it  out  of  the  way  of  the  cucumbers. 
The  sashes  should  be  removed  when  warm  weather  comes,  and 
the  vines  allowed  to  grow  in  the  frames  all  summer. 

Insects. — The  cucumber  has  a  serious  enemy  in  the  striped 
beetle  and  is  also  liable  to  injury  from  the  cut  worm.  (For  reme- 
dies see  chapter  on  insects.) 

Seed. — Cucumber  seed  is  easily  raised,  and  in  some  loca- 
tions it  is  a  product  of  some  importance.  In  raising  seed  it  is 
important  to  save  it  from  the  early  fruit,  which  in  a  small  way 
are  easily  saved ;  on  a  large  scale,  however,  the  fruits  are  allowed 
to  ripen  but  not  to  rot  on  the  ground.  When  the  vines  are  dead, 
the  ripe  cucumbers  are  split  open,  the  pulp  scooped  out  with  the 
seed  and  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  few  days,  when  it  readily  sepa- 
rates from  the  seed.  The  whole  mass  is  then  thrown  into  a 
sieve  with  a  mesh  small  enough  to  not  allow  the  seeds  to  pass 
through,  and  the  pulp  is  washed  through  the  sieve,  leaving  the 
clean  seed,  which  is  carefully  dried.  If  the  cucumbers  are  al- 
lowed to  get  rotten  before  the  seed  is  taken  out,  the  skins  will 
become  mixed  with  the  seed,  and  the  seed  will  be  discolored,  and 
such  seed  is  very  liable  to  sprout  in  the  cleaning  and  curing  pro- 
cess. 

Varieties. — For  general  home  use  and  marketing,  the  White 
Spine  is  a  favorite  variety.  For  pickles  the  most  profitable  kinds 
are  those  producing  many  small  cucumbers,  such  as  the  variety 


LETTUCE.  223 

known  as  the  Boston  Pickling.  There  are  many  good  varieties 
of  cucumbers  and  they  are  offered  under  various  names.  For 
earliest  use  the  Early  Russian  is  perhaps  the  best,  but  it  is 
small  and  seedy. 

THE  SUNFLOWER  FAMILY.  (Order  Compositae.) 
The  sunflower  family  (order  compositae)  is  the  largest  group 
of  flowering  plants,  yet  it  has  given  us  only  a  very  few  garden 
vegetables  and  those  are  of  little  importance.  Its  plants  are 
distinguished  by  what  the  older  botanists  termed  the  "compound 
flower."  This  consists  of  several  or  many  flowers  in  a  head,  sur- 
rounded by  a  set  of  bracts.  Stamens  as  many  as  the  lobes  of 
the  corolla  (generally  five),  their  anthers  grown  together  by  their 
edges.  Ovary  one-celled,  inferior,  containing  a  single  seed.  Be- 
sides the  artichoke,  lettuce,  salsify,  endive,  and  dandelion,  whose 
cultural  directions  are  here  given,  there  occur  here  the  tansy, 
sunflower,  daisies,  corn-flower,  ageratum,  cineraria,  chicory,  bur- 
dock, thistle,  wild  lettuce,  compass  plant,  ragweed,  fireweed, 
chrysanthemum,  marigold,  goldenrod,  aster,  yarrow,  zinnia,  dahlia 
and  many  other  well  known  plants. 

LETTUCE.     (Lactuca  sativa.) 

Native  of  India  or  Central  Asia. — Annual. — Flowers  yellow, 
on  seed  stalks  two  or  more  feet  high;  seeds  small,  flat,  white  or 
black,  but  sometimes  yellow  or  reddish  brown  in  color.  The 
shape  and  size  of  the  leaves  also  vary  greatly;  sometimes  they 
form  a  head  like  the  cabbage  and  again  only  a  loose  bunch.  The 
foliage  is  generally  of  some  shade  of  green,  but  some  varieties 
have  leaves  of  a  reddish  color. 

Cultivation. — Lettuce  is  largely  grown  in  greenhouses  during 
the  winter,  in  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  in  the  early  spring 
and  outdoors  in  the  late  spring  and  until  severe  weather  in 
autumn.  It  is  a  very  important  crop  for  the  market  gardener, 
as  there  is  some  demand  for  it  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and 
a  large  call  lor  it  in  the  spring.  Some  growers  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  this  crop  have  it  in  marketable  condition  every  month 
of  the  year.  In  some  sections,  the  plants  may  be  start- 
ed in  September  and  when  of  good  size  transplanted  to  a  cold 
frame,  where  they  may  be  safely  wintered  over.     In  the  spring 


224 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


they  are  used  for  planting  in  hotbeds  and  in  the  open  ground. 
In  the  extreme  Northern  states,  however,  although  plants  fre- 
quently come  through  the  winter  safely  when  thus  protected, 
it  is  not  a  method  to  be  depended  upon.  It  is  customary  here 
to  raise  the  plants  for  spring  planting,  in  greenhouses  or  early 
hotbeds.     Lettuce  may  be  transplanted  to  the  open  ground  as 


Figure  117  —  Black-seeded  Simpson  Lettuce.     (Typical  curley  sort.) 

soon  as  the  soil  will  work  easily  in  the  spring,  but  it  should 
be  well  hardened  off  before  being  planted  out;  it  will,  however, 
stand  quite  a  severe  freeze  if  properly  hardened  off,  and,  as  is 
the  case  with  many  other  crops,  the  plants  may  be  protected 
with  earth  on  the  approach  of  hard  frost,  providing  it  does  not 
remain  over  them  more  than  a  day  or  two.  In  the  open  ground, 
lettuce  plants  should  be  set  out  about  twelve  inches  apart  each 
way.  It  is  frequently  grown  between  rows  of  early  cabbage, 
cauliflower  or  other  plants  where  it  fills  up  otherwise  unoccupied 
space  and  comes  off  the  land  long  before  other  crops  need  the 
room  it  occupies.  For  late  use,  the  seed  is  often  sown  in  the 
open  ground  in  drills  one  foot  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  to  the 
same  distance  apart.  It  is  customary  also  in  the  home  garden  to 
sow  the  seed  and  then  cut  off  the  young  plants  as  soon  as  they  are 


LETTUCE. 


225 


large  enough  to  use;  such  lettuce,  however,  is  not  nearly  so  good 
as  head  lettuce  where  the  center  is  white,  crisp  and  tender.  It 
is  a  far  Letter  plan  to  thin  out  the  young  plants  so  that  they 
stand  three  or  four  inches  apart  in  the  rows  and  in  cutting  con- 


Figure  118 — Head  Lettuce. 

tinue  the  thinning  process  so  that  the  later  plants  will  form  good 
heads.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to  make  successive  sowings  of 
lettuce  in  order  to  have  it  fit  for  table  use  over  a  long  season. 
Like  all  leaf  crops,  lettuce  needs  plenty  of  rich,  easily  avail- 
able nitrogenous  manure  and  responds  very  quickly  to  small  ap- 
plications of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  and  each  year  finds 
many  additions  to  the  list  of  those  offered  by  seedsmen.  In 
the  matter  of  quality,  those  forming  a  head  like  the  cabbage 
have  the  preference.  Varieties  that  form  only  a  bunch  of  leaves 
are  largely  raised  by  market  gardeners  to  supply  the  common 
demand,  since  they  are  more  easily  grown  and  are  less  liable  to 
injury  in  handling  than  the  heading  varieties.  Some  of  the  most 
desirable  kinds  are  as  follows: 

White  Tennis  Ball,  or  Boston  Market. — A  very  popular 
market  variety  adapted  for  hotbed  and  early  spring  use  only. 
It  forms  a  solid  head  of  medium  size  but  quickly  goes  to  seed 
in  warm  weather. 


226  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Hanson. — Forms  large  solid  heads  and  is  a  general  favorite; 
excellent  for  spring  or  summer  use. 

Black-Seeded  Simpson. — A  popular  forcing  variety  that 
stands  well  without  going  to  seed  and  does  not  form  a  head  but  a 
mass  of  curled  leaves. 

Grand  Rapids. — A  very  desirable  lettuce  for  forcing.  It  re- 
sembles Black-Seeded  Simpson,  but  is  a  better  shipping  variety. 

Black-Seeded  Tennis  Ball. — A  popular  sort  for  forcing  or 
early  garden  culture.  It  forms  large,  solid  heads  and  is  highly 
esteemed. 

Salamander. — A  good  heading  sort  for  summer  use. 

Buttercup. — Bright  chrome  yellow  in  color,  very  beautiful; 
tender  and  desirable.     A  popular  new  sort. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — There  are  few  insects  or  diseases  that 
seriously  affect  the  lettuce  when  grown  outdoors.  In  the  green- 
house and  occasionally  in  the  hotbeds,  it  is  sometimes  attacked 
by  the  aphis  and  mildew.  For  remedies  for  aphis,  see  chapter 
on  insects. 

Mildew  frequently  injures  the  lettuce  crop  when  it  is  grown 
in  greenhouses  in  winter.  It  is  most  liable  to  be  caused  by  over- 
watering  and  especially  by  frequent  watering  in  cold  or  cloudy 
weather,  which  keeps  the  leaves  wet  much  of  the  time.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  water  heavily  when  the  crop  is  planted  and  to  avoid 
repeating  it  until  the  soil  is  quite  dry  and  then  water  heavily 
again  in  the  morning  of  a  bright  day,  so  that  the  foliage  may  dry 
off  before  night.  Sub-irrigation  has  been  used  with  excellent  suc- 
cess for  this  crop  in  greenhouses  in  winter. 

SALSIFY,  OR  VEGETABLE  OYSTER.  (Tragopogon  porrifolius.) 
Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — A  plant  with  long  fleshy  tap- 
root and  grass-like  leaves.  The  flower  stalks  grow  three  feet 
high;  the  seed  is  long,  ridged,  generally  curved  and  pointed  at 
both  ends.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  plant  with  a  seed  sower  be- 
cause of  its  peculiar  form,  but  when  the  points  are  rubbed  off  it  is 
often  so  planted. 

Culture. — The  cultural  directions  given  for  the  parsnip  apply 
to  this  plant.  It  is  very  easily  grown  and  hardy,  and  generally 
comes  through  the  winter  in  the  extreme  northern  states  without 
injury;  it  is  safer,  however,  to  dig  the  roots  in  autumn,  and  put  in 


SALSIFY. 


227 


pits  until  spring  or  for  use  during  winter.  The  root  is  highly  es- 
teemed and  has  the  flavor  of  oysters;  it  is  used  for  soups,  but  may 
be  cooked  in  the  same  manner  as  parsnips. 

The  best  variety  is  the  Mammoth  Sandwich  Island,  which  is 
far  superior  to  any  other. 

ENDIVE.  (Cichorium  endivia.) 
Native  of  East  India. — Annual. — Endive  resembles  the  dan- 
delion in  habit  and  growth.  It  is  esteemed  by  some  as  a  de- 
sirable fall  and  winter  salad  since 
it  has  a  pleasant  bitter  taste  when 
blanched.  It  is  of  very  simple 
culture  and  may  be  grown  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  lettuce.  For 
summer  use,  sow  the  seed  early  in 
the  spring;  for  autumn  and  winter 
use,  sow  in  July.  It  is  blanched  be- 
fore being  eaten.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  tying  the  leaves  lightly 
together  when  the  plants  have 
nearly  completed  their  growth. 
After  this  treatment,  the  leaves  in 
the  center  of  the  plant  will  have 
become  blanched  in  about  three 
weeks.  Do  not  tie  the  plants  too 
rapidly,  since  the  hearts  are  liable 
to  rot  soon  after  blanching,  espe- 
cially if  the  weather  is  warm.  On 
the  approach  of  severe  weather,  the 
plants  may  be  set  in  boxes  in  a  cold 
cellar,  where  they  will  continue  to 
produce  nice  blanched  leaves  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  winter. 

Varieties. — A    variety    known    as 
Green    Curled    Endive    is    generally 
grown,   but  other  varieties   are  of- 
fered by  seedsmen. 
(Taraxacum  officinale.) 


Fig.  119 — Sandwich  Island  Salsify 
DANDELION. 


Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — The  dandelion  is  a  familiar 


228 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


plant  to  almost  every  one.     It  is  now  of  spontaneous  growth  here 

and  is  used  for  greens  in  its  wild 
state;  but  the  cultivated  varie- 
ties are  quite  an  improvement  on 
the  wild  plants.  The  best  method 
of  growing  it  is  by  sowing  the 
seed  in  the  spring  in  drills  ten 
inches  apart  and  thinning  out  the 
plants  to  three  inches  apart  in 
rows.  The  seed  is  somewhat  dif- 
ficult to  start,  and  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  go  over  each  row  twice 
with  the  seed  sower,  so  as  to  mix 
the  seed  up  with  the  soil,  since 
by  this  method  some  of  it  will  be 
sure  to  be  properly  covered.  It 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  fall,  but 
It  is  often  forced  by  covering  the  bed 
by   transplanting  to    hotbeds   or   cold 


I  M  4 


Fig.  120. — Curled  Endive, 
not  generally  until  spring, 
with   the   hotbed   sash   or 
frames.     It  is  sometimes  blanch- 
ed and  used  as  a  salad,  for  which 
purpose   it  is  much  like  endive. 
While  the  plant  is  a  perennial, 
yet  only  one  crop  should  be  har- 
vested  from   each   sowing,   since 
after  the  first  cutting  there  are 
many     sprouts     produced     from 
each  root  so  that  none  of  them 
are  large  enough  for  good  mar- 
ket   plants.     The    plants    should 
always  be  plowed  in  before  they 
ripen  seed  unless  seed  is  to  be 
saved,  to  prevent  its  scattering  and  becoming  a  nuisance.     A  va* 
riety  called  the  Improved  Thick-Leaved  is  the  most  esteemed. 
JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.     (Helianthus  tuberosus.) 
Native    of   North    America. — Perennial. — Stems    herbaceous, 
six  or  more  feet  high,  roots  tuberous.     Flowers  yellow,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  common  sunflower,  but  comparatively  small. 


Figure  121. — Dandelion. 


ARTICHOKE.  229 

For  best  results  the  artichoke  requires  exceedingly  rich  soil.  It 
can  be  grown  from  the  seed,  although  this  is  seldom  attempted, 
but  it  is  customary  to  grow  it  by  planting  the  small  tubers  whole 
or  cut  the  large  tubers  in  the  same  way  as  potatoes.  They 
should  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep  at  twelve  inch  intervals 
in  rows  three  feet  apart.  They  are  used  chiefly  for  feeding 
stock  and  are  often  harvested  by  turning  hogs  into  the  field. 
They  will  frequently  remain  in  the  land  many  years  even  if  not 
cultivated.  They  are  easily  injured  by  frost  when  not  covered 
with  earth  but  in  the  ground  they  are  perfectly  hardy. 

GLOBE  ARTICHOKE.  (Cynara  scolymus.) 
Native  of  Barbary  and  South  Europe. — Perennial. — A  large 
thistle-like  plant  growing  two  to  three  feet  high,  producing  large 
flower  heads,  the  scales  of  which  are  large  and  thick,  and  are 
highly  esteemed  as  a  garden  vegetable  in  England  and  Southern 
Europe.  It  has,  however,  never  become  popular  in  this  country 
and  is  rarely  grown.  In  Southern  Europe  it  is  grown  by  divisions 
and  there  are  many  varieties.  It  may  also  be  grown  from  seed, 
but  seedlings  are  generally  very  much  inferior  to  the  best  named 
sorts.  The  roots  must  be  very  carefully  protected  in  order  to 
bring  them  through  our  winters. 

GARDEN   HERBS. 

Under  this  head  are  grouped  a  number  of  sweet  culinary  and 
medicinal  plants  that  are  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  gardens. 
They  are  generally  easily  grown  in  mellow,  open  soil.  Those 
having  foliage  that  is  esteemed  for  its  aroma  should  generally 
be  cut  on  a  dry  day,  just  as  they  reach  full  flowering  stage,  and 
should  be  dried  quickly  in  the  shade.  As  a  rule,  herbs  should  be 
cut  before  being  frozen,  though  freezing  does  not  always  injure 
them.  When  dry  they  should  be  kept  in  dry  air-tight  boxes  or 
vessels.  The  demand  is  very  limited  for  most  of  them.  Only  a 
few  of  the  most  common  kinds  are  referred  to  here.  In  the  ex- 
treme northern  states,  many  of  the  perennial  kinds  will  kill  out 
in  severe  winters  unless  protected. 

THE  MINT  FAMILY.     (Order  Labiatae.) 
The  Mint  Family  includes  little  other  than  herbs  (with  few 
exceptions)    which   have   aromatic   herbage,   square   stems,   op- 


230 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


posite  simple  leaves,  2-lipped  corolla  and  a  deeply  4-parted  ovary 
which  separates  into  the  same  number  of  seeds.     Besides  balm, 


SUMMER 
SAGE      SAVORY  DILL  CARAWAY      FENNEL      LAVENDE.R 


Figure  122— Characteristic  portions  of  garden  herbs. 

catnip,  lavender,  peppermint,  sage,  sweet  basil,  sweet  marjoram, 
spearmint,  summer  savory,  thyme,  and  winter  savory  whose 
cultural  directions  are  here  given,  this  order  includes  garden 
coleus,  hyssop,  flowering  sage  or  salvia,  and  horse  mint.  The 
plants  of  this  group  are  mostly  grown  for  their  aromatic  herb- 
age. 

Balm. —  (Melissa  officinalis.) — A  native  of  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope.— Perennial. — A  plant  growing  about  eighteen  inches  high 
having  aromatic  herbage.  The  seed  is  very  small.  Sow  in  spring 
where  the  plants  are  to  remain. 

Catnip. — (Nepeta  cataria.) — Native  of  Europe. — Perennial. — 
Often  a  common  weed  around  buildings  and  along  roadsides  here. 
It  is  used  in  a  small  way  for  seasoning.  Easily  grown  from  seed 
or  by  division. 


THE  MINT  FAMILY.  231 

Lavender.—  (Lavendula  spica.)— Native  of  southern  Europe- 
Perennial— A  low  undershrub  grown  chiefly  for  its  flowers 
which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery.  Generally  in- 
creased by  dividing  the  old  roots.  It  delights  in  a  fine,  ricn, 
rather  calcareous  soil. 

Peppermint.— (Mentha piperita.)— Native  of  northern  Europe. 
—Perennial.— Propagated  by  divisions  of  the  stems;  occasionally 
a  roadside  weed  in  moist  places.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  same 
way  as  spearmint.  Used  mostly  for  its  essential  oil  which  is  ob- 
tained by  distillation.  The  raising  of  this  plant  forms  a  con- 
siderable industry  in  a  few  locations  in  the  northern  states. 

Sage.— (Salvia  officinalis.)  —Native  of  southern  Europe.— Per- 
ennial.—Plants  forming  broad  tufts  about  sixteen  inches  high; 
flowers  in  heads  of  three  or  four  in  terminal  clusters,  usually 
bluish  white  but  sometimes  white  or  pink.  The  seeds  are  round 
and  of  medium  size.    Plants  come  readily  from  seed,  which  should 

be  sown  in  early  spring.  It  is  cus- 
tomary in  a  small  way  to  sow  the 
seed  outdoors  and  allow  the  plants 
to  remain  where  they  grow  for  sev- 
eral years.  Where  it  is  grown  on  a 
large  scale,  however,  the  plants  are 
generally  put  out  as  a  second 
crop,  following  early  peas  or  cab- 
bage. There  is  some  uncertainty 
about  its  coming  through  very  se- 
vere winters  in  the  northern  states, 
but  it  generally  does  so  in  good 
shape;  it  is  more  reliable  if  banked 
with  earth,  or  covered  with  litter  in 
winter.  Broad-leaved  sage  is  an 
improved  kind. 

Sweet  Basil.— (Ocymum  basilicum.) — Native  of  India.— An- 
nual.—Stem  about  one  foot  high;  very  branching.  The  leaves 
and  other  green  parts  have  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor  and  are 
used  in  seasoning.  Sow  indoors  in  March  or  April  and  trans- 
plant as  soon  as  t^e  weather  is  settled.  It  may  also  be  sown  in 
the  open  ground  early  in  the  spring. 


Fiff.  123— Branch  of  sage  plant. 


232  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

Sweet  Marjoram. — (Origanum  marjorana.) — Native  of  Asia. — 
Perennial  but  generally  grows  as  an  annual. — The  leaves  and 
other  green  parts  are  used  for  seasoning.  The  seeds  are  very 
small.     Sow  early  in  spring  in  any  good  garden  soil. 

Mint  or  Spearmint. —  (Mentha  viridis.) — Native  of  Europe. — 
Perennial. — A  plant  with  vigorous  creeping  root  stock,  very 
hardy  and  sometimes  a  troublesome  weed  in  moist  soil.  It  is 
grown  by  planting  the  roots  in  the  spring.  There  is  a  small  de- 
mand for  this  plant  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer,  which  is  met 
by  a  greenhouse  supply.  The  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  used 
for  seasoning. 

Summer  Savory.—  (Satureia  hortensis.) — Native  of  southern 
Europe. — Annual. — A  small  plant  eight  or  ten  inches  high.  The 
seed,  which  is  very  small,  should  be  sown  the  latter  part  of  April 
or  in  May.    The  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  used  for  flavoring. 

Thyme. — (Thymus  vulgaris.) — Native  of  southern  Europe. — 
Perennial. — A  small  plant  with  small  aromatic  leaves  and  stems. 
It  starts  easily  if  sown  in  early  spring.  It  is  customary  to  sow 
the  seed  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  but  it  may  be  trans- 
planted. It  is  in  demand  for  flavoring  and  is  generally  hardy  at 
the  north.  E road-leaved  thyme  is  the  only  variety  worth  grow- 
ing. 

Winter  Savory. — (Satureia  montana.) — Native  of  southern 
Europe. — Perennial. — Stems  woody,  at  least  near  the  base;  twelve 
to  sixteen  inches  high.  Used  for  the  same  purposes  as  Summer 
Savory.    Not  hardy  here  unless  well  protected. 

PARSNIP  FAMILY.     (Order  Umbelliferae.) 
For  characteristics  see  page  172. 

Anise. —  (Pimpinella  anisum). — A  native  of  Asia  Minor. — An- 
nual.— Attains  a  height  of  sixteen  inches.  The  seeds  are  aromatic 
and  used  in  medicine  and  confections.  Sow  in  April  or  May 
where  the  plants  are  to  remain  during  the  season. 

Caraway. — (Carum  carui.) — Native  of  Europe. — Biennial. — 
Stem  straight;  two  or  three  feet  high.  The  seeds  resemble  those 
of  carrots  and  are  esteemed  for  flavoring.  It  should  be  sown  in 
May  in  drills  and  does  not  produce  seed  until  the  following  sea- 
son; very  hardy  and  of  the  easiest  culture. 


PARSNIP  FAMILY.  233 

Coriander. — (Coriandrum  sativum.)— Native  of  southern  Eu- 
rope.—Annual. — Two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  high.  Stem  leaves 
much  divided.  Grown  from  the  seed  which  should  be  sown  in 
the  spring.  The  seed  is  used  for  flavoring  purposes;  the  foliage 
exhales  a  very  rank  odor. 

Dill.— (Anethum  graveolens.) — Native  of  southern  Europe- 
Annual— Height,  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet.  It  is  of  the 
easiest  culture.  The  seed  is  much  used  as  flavoring  for  pickles 
of  various  kinds.  It  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  in  rows  about 
one  foot  apart  and  cultivated  the  same  as  for  carrots.  Where  the 
seed  ripens,  an  abundance  of  plants  generally  spring  up  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Probably  botanically  the  same  as  fennel  but  the 
latter  is  more  in  use  in  the  green  stage  for  its  foliage. 

BORAGE  FAMILY.     (Order  Boraginaceae.) 
Borage.— (Borage  officinalis.)— Native  of  Europe  and  North 
Africa.— Annual.— Twelve  to  eighteen  inches  high.     Used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cordials.     Flowers  blue,  pretty.     Of  the  easiest 
culture,  growing  freely  from  spring  sown  seeds. 

RUE  FAMILY.     (Order  Rutaceae.) 
Common  Rue.— (Ruta  graveoleus.)— A  bushy  herb,  woody,  or 
almost  shrubby  at  its  base.    The  leaves  are  very  bitter  and  some- 
times used  in  seasoning.     Grown  from  seed  or  by  division  of  the 
roots. 


234 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


TABLE  I.— WEIGHT  OF  ONE  QUART  OF  SEEDS  AND  NUMBER  OF 
SEEDS  IN  ONE  OUNCE. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Weight  of  a 
Quart  of 
Seed  in 
Ounces. 


Number   of 

Seeds  in 
One  Ounce. 


Asparagus 

Balm, 

Basil, 

Bean 

Beet, 

Borecole,  or  Kale 

Broscoli 

Cabbage, 

Caraway, 

Carrot,  with  spines 

"       without  spines, 

Catmint 

Cauliflower, 

Celery 

Chicory, 

Cress,  American, 

"       common  garden 

'•        water, ...,a 

Cucumber,  common, 

prickly  fruited  gherkin, 

Dandelion, 

Dill 


Egg  Plant, 

Endive 

Kohlrabi, 

Leek, 

Lettuce, 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn,. 

Marjoram,  sweet, 

winter, 

Martynia 

Muskmelon,  

Okra 

Onion, 

Pea 

"     gray  or  field, 

Parsnip, 

Pepper 

Pumpkin, 

Radish, 

Rampion, 

Rhubarb, 

Sage 

Salsify 

Savory,  summer 

"        winter 

Spinach,  prickly-seeded. 

"       round-seeded.... 

"  New  Zealand.... 
Squash,  Hubbard 

"       Bush  Scalloped 

Strawberry  Tomato 

Thyme , 

Tomato 

Turnip ,.... 

Watermelon 


32 
20 
20 
24  to  33 
10 
25 
25 
25 
15 
9 
13 
28 
25 
17 
14 
20 
28 
20% 
18 
20 

11 

18 

12 

25 

20 

151/3 

23 

20 

24 

3  OV3 

13 

22 

18 
25  to  28% 
21  to  28y2 


16 

9 

25 

28V2 
3  to  4V2 

i9y2 

8 
18 
15 
13V2 
14% 

8 
14 
15% 
23 
24 
11 
24 
16 1/2 


1,400 

56,600 

22,665 

200  to  225 

1,400 

8,500 

10,525 

8,500 

9,915 

19,835 

26,915 

3,400 

10.525 

70,835 

19,830 

16,915 

12,715 

113,335 

1,103 

3,680 

34,000  to  42.50O 

25,500 

6,520 

18,000 

8,500 

11,335 

22,665 

113  to  140 

113,355 

340.000 

565 

1,560 

425  to  510 

7,080 

56  to  14-2 

142  to  225 

6,605 

4,205 

85 

700,835 

3,400 

5,415 

7,080 

2,835 

42,500 

70,835 

2,550 

3,135 

280  to  340 

93 

280 

28,335 

170,000 

8,500  to  11.335 

12,715 

113  to  150 


TABLES. 


235 


TABLE  II— LONGEVITY   OF  GARDEN  SEED  WHEN  PROPERLY 
CORED  AND  STORED. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Average 
Y'ears. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Average 
Y'ears. 


Balm 

Basil 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole 

Cabbage 

Caraway 

Carrot 

Catmint 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Cress,  American 

"       Common  Garden. 
Water 


Cucumber  common 

"                Prickly-fruited 
Gherkin 


Dandelion 

Dill 

Egg-Plant 

Endive 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lettnce,  common 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn. 

Marjoram,  Swert 

Winte. 


3 
6 
5 
5 
3 
4  or  5 
6 
5 
8 
8 
3 
5 
5 
10 
6 
o 

3 
G 
10 
5 
3 
5 
2 
3 


Martynia |     1  or 

Muskmelon , 

I  Mustard,  white  or  salad 

Okra J 

J   Onion I 

Parsnip ! 

! 

Parsley 

!   Pea.     Garden  or  field 

Pepper [ 


Pumpkin 4  or  5 


Radish 

Rampion.. 
Rhubarb  . 
Rosemary 

Rue 

Sage 

j   Salsify 


Savory, summer  or  wint'r, 


Spinach,  all  kinds, 

Squash,  Hubbard 

"  Bush  scalloped. 

Strawbery  Tomato 

Thyme 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Watermelon 


236  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 

TABLE  III.— AMOUNT  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  TO  SOW  AN  ACRE. 


KIND  OF  SEED 

METHOD  OF  SOWING 

Amt.  per  Acre 

Asparagus, 

1  oz.  for  50  ft. 

4  to     5  lbs 

Beans,  Dwarf, 

\\2  bus. 

10  to  12  qts. 

5  to     6  lbs 

Pole 

Beet 

•  < 

•Cabbage 

In  beds  to  tra 
In  drills 

V±    lb. 
2  to     4  lbs 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

1  oz.  for  1000 
1  oz.  for  2000 
In  hills 

Celery 

Corn 

8  to  10  qts. 
2  lbs 

Cucumber, 

Cress,  water  or  upland, 
Egg-Plant 

In  drills 

2  tO     3  lbs. 

1  oz.  for  1000 

Kale,  or  Sprouts 

3  to     4  lbs 

Lettuce 

1  oz.  for  1000 
In  hills 

Muskmelon, 

2  to     3  lbs. 

Melon,  Water, 

In  hills 

4  to     5  lbs. 

Onion, 

5  to     6  lbs 

"       ,  seed  for  sets 

In  drills 

30  lbs. 

"       .sets 

6  to  12  bus 

Parsnip, 

<• 

4  to     6  lbs 

Peas,  

•  1 

7  to  lObus. 

Pumpkin, 

In  hills 

4  to     5  lbs 

Radish 

8  to  10  lbs. 
8  to  10  lbs. 
8  to  10  lbs 

Sage 

Salsifv, 

>< 

Spinach, 

a 

10  to  12  qts. 
4  to     6  lbs 

Squash,   Bush 

In  hills 

"           Running, 

3  to     4  lbs. 

Tomato, 

To  transplant 

14  lb 

Turnip, 

1  to     2  lbs 

'« 

3  to     4  lbs. 

TABLE  IV.— AVERAGE  TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  GARDEN  SEEDS  OT  } 
GERMINATE  UNDER  GOOD   CONDITIONS, 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


No.  Days. 


Bean, 

Beet 

Cabbage,.... 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celerv 

Corn 

Cucumber,.. 
Endive 


5  to  10 

7  to  10 

5  to  10 

2  to  18 

5  to  10 

0  to  20 

5  to     8 

6  to  10 

5  to  10 

Lettuce. 
Onion.... 

Pea 

Parsnip, 
Pepper,. 
Radish,. 
Salsify,. 
Tomato 
Turnip,. 


6  to     8 

7  to  10 

6  to  10 
10  to  20 

9  to  14 

3  to     6 

7  to  12 
6  to  12 

4  to     8 


TABLES. 


237 


TABLE  V.— STANDARDS  OF  PURITY  AND  GERMINATION 
OF  AGRICULTURAL  SEEDS. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  adopted 
the  following  standards  as  the  base  for  its  decisions  as  to  the 
value  of  seeds: 

The  seeds  must  be  true  to  name,  and  practically  free  from 
smut,  bunt,  ergot,  insects  or  their  eggs  or  larvae,  and  the  seeds 
of  dodder  (Cuscuta  spp.),  wild  mustard  (Brassioa  spp.),  wild  flax 
(Camelina  spp.),  Russian  thistle  (Salsola  kali  tragus),  Canada 
thistle  (Carduus  arvensis),  cockle  (Agrostemma  githago),  chess 
(Bromus  secalinus), quack  grass  (Agropyron  repens), penny  cress 
(Thlaspi  arvense),  wild  oats  (Avena  fatua),  and  the  bulblets  of 
wild  onion  (Allium  vineale).  It  must  not  contain  more  than  one 
per  cent  of  other  weed  seeds,  and  should  come  up  to  the  percent- 
ages of  purity i  and  germination  given  in  the  following  table: 


KIND  OF  SEED. 


Alfalfa 

Asparagus 

Barley 

Beans. 

Beet 

Blue  grass, Canadian. 
Blue  grass,  Kentucky 

Brome,  awnless 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Clover,  alsike 

Clover,  Crimson  .... 

Clover,  red 

Clover,  white 

Collard . 

Corn,  field 

Corn,  sweet 

Cotton 

Cowpea 

Cucumber 

Egg  Plant 

Fescue,  meadow 

Lettuce 

Kafir  corn 

Melon,  musk 


Purity 


Per ' 
cent.* 

98 
99 
99 
99 
99 
90 
90 
90 
99 
99 
95 
99 
98 
95 
98 
98 
95 
99 
99 
99 
99 
99 
99 
99 
95 
99 
98 
99 


Germi- 
nation. 


per  cent. 

85-90 
80-85 
90-95 
90-95 
140-lSOt 
45-50 
45-50 
75-80 
90-95 
90-95 
80-85 
80-85 
60-65 
75-80 
85-90 
85-90 
75-80 
90-95 
90-95 
85-90 
85-90 
85-90 
85-90 
75-80 
85-90 
85-90 
85-90 
85-90 


KIND  OF  SEED 


Melon,  water 

M  illet,  common  (Clioe- 

tachloat  itahca) 

Millet,  hog  {Pa7iicum 

miliaceum) 

Millet,   pearl 

Oats 

Okra 

Onion .... 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peas 

Pumpkin  

Radish 

Kape 

Rye  

Salsify. 

Sorghum 

Spinach 

Squash 

Timothy 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Tobacco 

Vetch,  hairy 

Vetch,  kidney 

Wheat   


Purity. 


per 

cent. 
99 


Germi 


per 
cent. 
85-90 

85-90 

85-90 
85-90 
90-95 
80-85 
80-85 
70-75 
70-75 
90-95 
85-90 
90-95 
90-95 
90-95 
75-80 
85-90 
80-85 
85-90" 
85-90 
85-90 
90-95 
75-80 
70-75 
85-90 
90-95 


Impurity  allowed  refers  to  inert  matter  and  one  per  cent  (only)  of  weed  seeds 

other  than  those  practically  prohibited,  as  above  noted. 
fEach  beet  fruit,  or  "ball,"  is  likely  to  contain  from  2  to  7  seeds.     One  hundred 

balls  should  yield  150  sprouts- 

i  This  means  purity  of  grain,  not  purity  of  stock. 


238  VEGETABLE  GARDENING. 


TABLE  VI.-QUANTITY  IOF   SEEP  REQUIRED  FOR  A 
GIVEN  NUMBER  OF  HILLS: 

Corn 1  qt.  to  200  hills 

Cucumbers 1  oz.  to  125 

Muskmelon 1  oz.  to    60 

Pole  Beans,  Limas 1  qt.  to  100 

Pole  Beans,  Wax 1  qt.  to  150 

Pumpkin  1  oz.  to    50 

Squash 1  oz.  to    50 

Watermelon 1  oz.  to    30 


TABLE  VII.-QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  A 
GIVEN  LENGTH  OF  DRILL: 

Asparagus 1  oz.    50  feet  of  drill 

Beet 1  oz.    50 

Beans,  Dwarf 1  qt.  100 

Carrot 1  oz.  100 

Endive 1  oz.  100 

Okra 1  oz.    40 

Onion 1  oz.  100 

Onion  sets 1  qt.    50 

Parsley 1  oz.  125 

Parsnips 1  oz.  200 

Peas 1  qt.    75 

Radishes 1  oz.  100 

Salsify 1  oz.    70  <s 

Spinach 1  oz.  100 

Turnip 1  oz.  150  " 


MONTHLY  CALENDAR. 

Under  this  head  some  of  the  principal  operations  of  the  year 
in  the  more  northern  states  are  referred  to,  but  these  can  be  re- 
garded only  as  suggestive,  since  individual  conditions  as  well  as 
the  weather  vary  from  year  to  year.  The  point  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  for  the  greatest 
profit,  to  have  all  garden  work  done  at  the  proper  time;  and  to 
do  this  considerable  planning  and  studying  will  be  necessary  in 
laying  out  each  day's  work,  as  well  as  the  work  of  the  season,  so 
as  to  make  the  most  of  the  opportunities  offered  by  weather  and 
season. 

January. — The  outdoor  work  is  generally  quite  at  a  stand- 
still this  month,  except  that  manure  may  be  drawn  from  the 
stable  to  the  fields  needing  it,  where  it  may  be  piled  and  forked 
over.  Plan  out  the  work  of  the  season,  aiming  to  have  the 
ground  and  the  time  of  your  help  occupied  all  the  time.  In  do- 
ing this  it  is  generally  best  to  plan  to  raise  those  crops  that  will 
not  require  a  large  amount  of  work  at  the  same  season,  but 
rather  those  that  will  give  a  succession  of  work.  Market  any 
celery,  squash  or  other  vegetables  for  which  there  is  a  demand. 

Send  for  seed  catalogues  of  leading  dealers.  Decide  what 
you  are  going  to  want.  Test  the  quality  of  the  seeds  you  have 
on  hand  and  get  your  new  stock  of  seed  early.  Test  the  seeds 
received  for  planting. 

February. — The  work  of  this  month  differs  but  little  from 
that  of  January,  but,  in  addition,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned: During  the  latter  part  of  the  month  prepare  manure 
for  early  hotbeds  to  be  started  the  first  of  March.  Inspect  tools, 
wagons,  harness,  boxes  and  crates  for  marketing  and  hotbed 
sash,  and  get  them  into  shape  for  the  busy  season.  In  the  green- 
house, cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  may  be  started;    and  as 


24  MONTHLY   CALENDAR. 

soon  as  of  transplanting  size  they  should  be  removed  to  cold 
frames,  where  they  should  remain  until  the  ground  is  ready  for 
planting  out. 

March. — Make  up  hotbeds  and  sow  in  them  tomatoes,  pep- 
pers, cabbage,  lettuce,  radishes,  cress,  onions  for  transplanting, 
carrots,  beets,  celery,  etc.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  month 
cold  frames  may  be  used  for  the  hardy  vegetables. 

If  the  ground  is  fit  to  work,  onion  sets  may  be  planted  and 
spinach,  hardy  peas,  and  other  plants  which  are  generally  not 
sown  until  April  may  be  sown  at  this  time.  Harden  off  the 
early  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants. 

April. — The  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  should  be  in  constant 
use.  Plantations  of  asparagus  and  rhubarb  may  be  made  during 
this  and  the  following  month.    Plant  onion  sets. 

Sow  hardy  (smooth)  peas,  lettuce,  celery,  radishes,  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  turnips,  onions  and  spinach,  and  plant  early  pota- 
toes as  soon  as  the  land  is  fit  to  be  worked.  By  the  end  of  the 
month,  wrinkled  peas,  salsify  and  parsnips  may  be  sown.  See 
that  tomatoes  sown  last  month  are  transplanted  into  beds  or 
boxes  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  room.  Transplant  cabbage  plants 
for  the  early  crop,  putting  them  in  deep  enough  to  completely 
cover  the  stems. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  month,  all  the  early  planted  crops 
may  need  cultivating  and  some  of  them  thinning  though  but  lit- 
tle of  this  is  generally  necessary  until  May.  Radishes,  lettuce, 
spinach  and  onions  from  sets  and  from  seed  sown  in  hotbeds  in 
March  should  be  fit  to  eat  or  to  market. 

Haul  out  manure  and  plow  land  for  planting  next  month. 
Transplant  onion  plants  from  the  hotbeds  to  open  ground. 

May  is  the  month  when  the  larger  part  of  the  vegetables  are 
planted. 

By  the  middle  of  the  month  it  is  often  safe  to  plant  the  more 
tender  vegetables,  sucu  as  cucumbers,  squash,  melons  and  beans, 
in  the  open  ground,  although  nothing  is  gained  by  so  doing  if 
the  ground  is  cold,  wnen  it  would  be  better  to  wait  until  ten 
days  later.  Corn  is  frequently  planted  by  the  middle  of  the 
month,  and  in  early  seasons  it  is  a  good  plan  to  venture  a  little 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING.  241 

of  some  very  early  kind  during  the  first  week  of  May.     Plant  po- 
tatoes for  general  crops. 

All  the  early  planted  crops  need  cultivating  frequently,  and 
those  in  drills  need  to  be  thinned. 

Plantings  for  succession  may  be  made  of  all  vegetable  seeds 
and  sets  put  in  last  month. 

Sow  cabbage  for  winter  use. 

Lettuce,  radishes,  beets,  spinach,  asparagus,  rhubarb  and 
bunch  onions  should  now  be  large  enough  for  use. 

Harden  off  tomato  plants  and  set  them  out  the  first  part  of 
next  month. 

June. — Set  out  tomatoes,  celery  for  early  use,  peppers,  egg 
plant,  late  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants  and  sow  winter  beets. 

Plant  cucumbers  for  pickles  and  beans  for  main  crop.  Plant 
Lima  beans  the  early  part  of  the  month.  Market  the  same  vege- 
tables as  last  month  and  in  addition  early  peas  and,  perhaps, 
early  cabbage. 

Weeding  commences  in  earnest  this  month  and  should  be- 
gin early,  since  if  neglected  it  may  be  cheaper  to  plow  up  the 
whole  crop  rather  than  weed  it  out. 

Keep  the  soil  well  stirred  with  the  cultivator. 

Sow  rutabaga  turnips. 

Stop  cutting  asparagus  by  the  twentieth  of  the  month.  Clean 
up  the  bed,  manure  and  plow  it. 

July. — Plant  celery  for  main  and  late  crop. 

Sow  string  beans,  winter  radish  and  rutabaga  turnips. 

Early  potatoes,  string  beans,  cabbage,  summer  squashes,  cu- 
cumbers, green  corn,  onions  from  sets  and  cauliflowers  are  now 
of  edible  size  in  addition  to  those  vegetables  nearing  maturity 
last  month. 

Continued  cultivation  is  necessary  to  protect  from  drought 
and  to  keep  plants  growing. 

August  —  Sow  string  beans  and  flat  early  turnips,  spinach  for 
spring  use,  winter  radishes  and  early  peas. 

The  late  crops  are  now  maturing,  and  we  have  tomatoes, 
squashes,  the  better  Rinds  of  sweet  corn  and  egg-plant,  onions 
from  early  sown  seed,  and  those  transplanted  are  now  dry  and 


"*2  MONTHLY   CALENDAR. 

marketable.  Lima  beans  will  be  ready  for  use  the  latter  part 
of  the  month. 

Keep  weeds  from  going  to  seed. 

Sow  lettuce  for  growing  in  hotbeds  or  cold  frames  for 
Thanksgiving. 

September. — The  cool  nights  of  this  month  are  especially 
favorable  to  such  crops  as  celery,  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  and 
they  should  be  carefully  cultivated. 

Melons,  winter  squash  and  celery  are  now  marketable. 

Handle  celery;  i.  e.,  partially  earth  up  around  it. 

First  frosts  may  new  be  expected  by  the  fifteenth  of  the 
month,  and  the  half-ripened  tomatoes  should  be  picked  and  al- 
lowed to  ripen  in  some  shady  place.  Winter  squash  should  be 
gathered  before  it  is  at  all  injured  by  frost. 

Dig  potatoes. 

Transplant  lettuce  to  hotbeds  or  cold  frames.  Plant  out 
hardy  perennial  onions  for  bunching  in  the  early  spring. 

October. — Winter  celery  should  be  banked  up  to  protect  it 
from  severe  frosts,  and  on  severe  nights  it  should  be  covered 
with  straw  or  hay  for  protection.  It  should  all  be  stored  away 
by  the  end  of  the  month  unless  plenty  of  protection  is  provided 
in  the  shape  of  straw,  in  which  case  it  is  safe  to  leave  It  out  un- 
til the  10th  of  November.  Such  crops  will  not  stand  with  im- 
munity as  much  frost  in  the  western  states  as  in  the  eastern 
states.  Pull  and  store  cabbage,  dig  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  sal- 
sify and  potatoes  and  store  in  pits  or  put  at  once  into  the  cellar. 
Some  parsnips  and  salsify  may  be  left  on  high  land  to  be  dug  in 
the  spring.     Plant  out  rhubarb  roots. 

Attend  to  fall  plowing  and  leave  in  ridges  any  very  heavy 
land  that  is  needed  for  early  spring  use. 

November. — In  the  more  northern  states  this  month  generally 
closes  up  the  work  of  the  season.  All  the  crops  should  be  gath- 
ered in  the  early  pari,  of  the  month. 

Clean  up  the  garden,  frames  and  hotbeds  and  get  them 
ready  for  spring  work. 

The  lettuce  sown  in  August  and  transplanted  to  hotbeds  or 
cold  frames  should  be  lit  to  market  this  month. 

Market  all  the  vegetables  on  hand  that  will  bring  a  fair 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING.  243 

price,  unless  wanted  for  some  special  purpose  or  at  an  assured 
price. 

Cover  winter  spinach  and  hardy  onion  sets  with  hay  as  soon 
as  the  ground  begins  to  freeze  hard  at  night,  to  prevent  freezing 
and  thawing. 

December. — Clean  up  the  garden  and  continue  the  marketing 
of  vegetables  if  it  is  not  already  attended  to. 

Carefully  study  the  season's  work,  note  the  profits  or  losses 
on  the  last  crop,  and  what  has  been  learned  that  will  be  useful 
another  year. 

At  Odd  Times  the  following  may  be  attended  to: — Gather 
manure,  make  crates  and  boxes  for  marketing  fruits,  vegetables 
and  plants,  repair  tools,  wagons,  harnesses,  sashes,  hotbeds  and 
cold  frames.    Clean  up! 


INDEX. 


Page 

Acre  inch  of  water 10 

Anise     232 

Artichoke,    Globe     229 

Artichoke,     Jerusalem 228 

Ash,   per  cent   in   vegetables.    15 

Asparagus     114 

bunching     119 

cultivation    .117 

cutting     US 

forcing 120 

manuring    119 

planting   117 

propagation    115 

varieties    120 

Balm    128 

Beans    164 

bush    165 

diseases    168 

harvesting     165 

insects    168 

pole 164 

transpanting    167 

preserving    in    salt 167 

varieties     164 

Beet 132 

diseases  137 

forcing  139 

harvesting    139 

keeping    139 

swiss    chard     141 

stock     140 

varieties     139 

sugar     140 

Borraginaceae     233 

Borage    233 

Borage  Family    106-233 

Bordeaux    mixture    203 

Borecole     156 

Botanical    classification 105 

Brussels    sprouts    154 

Buckwheat   Family 105-134 

Cabbage     144 

eqrly     145 


Cabbage— Cont'd.  *»ag« 

late    147 

storing    149 

diseases     152 

harvesting    146 

hill    sowing    148 

insects    152 

manure   for    145 

pitting    149 

retarding    heading    of 146 

rot    153 

sauer    kraut    152 

seed    raising    150 

seed  sowing  147 

setting  plants   145 

soil     145 

varieties    143 

Cabbage    Family 105-143 

Calendar,    monthly 238 

Caraway    232 

Carbon    bisulphide    87 

Carrot     174 

cultivation    175 

forcing    178 

gathering    176 

seed     178 

storing    177 

varieties    178 

Catnip     230 

Cauliflower     155 

varieties    156 

Celariac    188 

Celery     178 

bleaching  with   boards 184 

bleaching   with    earth.    «...  184 
bleaching,      time      req  tfred 

for    .187 

digging .186 

diseases 187 

early .179 

handling .183 

late    184 

marketing   .188 


INDEX. 


245 


Celery— Cont'd.  Page 

onions   with    182 

planting 181 

storing     186 

seed    187 

varieties    188 

Citron   melon    219 

Chenopodiaceae 137 

Chives    134 

culture    134 

Classification   of   Vegetables.  .104 

Clover    Family    105-163 

Cold   Climate   Vegetables 104 

Cold  frames  (see  greenhouses)   65 
Cold  frames,  for  early  spring 

use    66 

sash  for 78 

Commercial   fertilizers    21 

Compositae    223 

Compost  heap 21 

Convolvulaceae   189 

Corn 109 

classes  of    109 

cultivation 110 

curing  seed 112 

cutting  off  tassels 113 

diseases 101 

Insects 113 

marketing Ill 

pop    112 

preserving 113 

smut 113 

varieties  run  out 112 

Coriander    233 

varieties    Ill 

Corrosive  for  Potato  Scab. . .  .201 

Cress   161 

water 160 

Crucifereae 143 

Cucumber    219 

cultivation    219 

gathering  the  crop  .......  .220 

insects 222 

salting 221 

seed    222 

starting  in  cold  frames. ..  .221 

varieties 222 

Caeurbitaceae 210 


Page 

Cultivation,   general 29-33-35 

Dandelion    227 

Dill 233 

Diseases — 

anthracnose  of  bean 168 

beet  scab   140 

blight  or  rust  of  celery 188 

club  root  of  cabbage 152 

leaf  blight  of  celery 187 

lettuce  mildew   226 

potato  blight 202 

potato  scab 200 

smut   of  corn 113 

Egg  plant 203 

Endive 227 

Fennel    230 

Formaline  for  Potato  Scab... 202 

Frost  Hardy  Vegetables 105 

Frost  Tender  Vegetables 104 

Fungi 106 

Garden  herbs   229 

Garlic,   common 132 

Glass  structures 65 

Germinating  apparatus 56 

Germination,     conditions     for 

successful    42 

Gourd    211 

Gourd  Family   105-210 

Goosefoot  Family 105-137 

Gramineae , 109 

Grass  Family 105-109 

Greenhouse  hotbed 71 

Greenhouses    74 

boxes    81 

glass    83 

glazing 84 

heating 77 

lean-to 73 

mats 78 

miscellaneous  notes  on 78 

radiating    surface    77 

sash    78 

shading 82 

shutters 78 

soil    81 

substitutes  for  glass 81 

temperature 79 


246 


INDEX. 


Greenhouses — Cont'd.  Page 

ventilation 79 

watering    R° 

Ground  cherry    208 

Hardening  off  of  plants 50 

Herbs 229 

Horseradish 159 

Hotbeds  (see  also  greenhouses)   66 

Hotbeds 66 

manure  for    67 

early   spring   use 67 

fire   69 

sash  for 78 

shutters  for 78 

mats  for    78 

Humus    10-14 

Implements 35 

combined  drills  and  cultiva- 
tors     37 

dibbers 38 

hand 36 

horse 36 

marker 38 

plank   drag    39 

potato  diggers 39 

potato   hoe    39 

scuffle  hoe   39 

seed  drills 37 

spray  pumps 39 

Insecticides 85 

application  of 88 

carbon  bisulphide 87 

kerosene  emulsion    87 

London  purple    86 

Paris  green 86 

pyrethnam 85 

tobacco 86 

insects 85 

aphis    99 

bean  weevil 101 

cabbage   flea   beetle 98 

cabbage   lice    100 

cabbage  worms 90 

catching 88 

celery  caterpillar   100 

chinch  bug    101 

cucumber  beetle 95 

cut  worms 93 


Insects— Cont'd.  Page 

corn  moth 100 

leaf  lice 99 

maggots 97 

May  beetle 96 

parsley  worm 100 

potato  beetle 89 

pea  weevil 101 

squash  bug   103 

squash  vine  borer   102 

tassel  worm 100 

white  grub 96 

wire  worms 93 

Irrigation    8 

acre  inch  of  water   10 

amount  of  water  needed.  ...   10 

application   of   water    11 

cultivation  as  an  aid  to. . . .      9 

humus,  an  aid  to 10 

pumping  water  for 10 

reservoirs 11 

rules    for 11 

storage  capacity  for 10 

sub-irrigation    12 

temperature  of  water 11 

Kale 156 

Kerosene  emulsion 87 

Kitchen  garden 53 

Kohl-rabi 157 

varieties 157 

Labiatae    229 

Lavender   230 

Leeks    133 

cultivation    133 

varieties 134 

Luguminosae 163 

Lettuce 223 

cultivation 223 

mildew    226 

varieties    225 

Lilaceae 114 

Lily  Family 105-114 

Lima  beans 166 

London  purple 86 

Malvaceae 171 

Manure  pile 20 

Manure,  hotbed    67 

Manures    14 


INDEX. 


24^ 


Manures— Cont'd.  Page 

action  of 14 

animal    18 

commercial 21 

effect    25 

composition  of    17 

composition  of  farm 10 

compost  heap    21 

cow 20 

for  early  and  late  crops   .  .    20 

for   leguminous   crops 27 

ground  blood 22 

ground  bones 22 

heating  of 19 

hen 19 

horse 19 

humus    14 

Kainit 21 

land  plaster    25 

lime    25 

liquid    28 

mixing 20 

most  valuable  element  in...   14 

nitrate  of  soda 23 

salt   15-24 

sheep    20 

sulphate  of  ammonia 24 

superphosphates 24 

swine   20 

tankage   22 

use  of  fresh 26 

wood  ashes   24 

Mallow  Family 105-171 

Manuring  growing  crops 27 

Martyniaceae    210 

Martynia 210 

culture 210 

Martynia   Family 105-210 

Melon,  musk   216 

culture 216 

varieties    217 

Melon,   preserving    217 

Melon,   water    218 

culture 219 

varieties 219 

Mint 229 

Mint   Family    105-229 

Mixing  varieties ...    63 


Page 
Morning  Glory   Family. ..  105-18'J 

Monthly  calendar 238 

Mulching     y 

Mushrooms    106 

native  species  of 107 

Novelties 58 

Okra     171 

varieties 171 

Onions  for  home  garden 130 

Onions    120 

cultivation 123 

keeping 125 

land    for 121 

marketing    13] 

perennial 13 i 

potato 13^ 

scallions 12  i 

sets 125 

seed 13] 

sowing  seed 122 

storing 123 

top    13] 

transplanting    128 

varieties 131 

Oyster  plant 226 

Parsnip  Family 105-171 

Parsley 173 

culture 174 

varieties 174 

Parsnip 172 

culture 172 

varieties    173 

Paris   green    86 

Peas 168 

culture 169 

canning   of 170 

varieties 170 

Peppers    209 

culture 209 

varieties 209 

Peppermint 231 

Pie  plant 135 

Plowing    31 

subsoil    31 

Pollenizing  flowers 61 

Polygonaceae 134 


(48 


INDEX. 


Tage 

Potato  Family 105-190 

Potatoes    190 

blight 202 

digging 195 

diseases 200 

early   planting    194 

insects    199 

main  crop   194 

manuring    192 

origin    191 

pitting    196 

propagation,  notes  on 199 

"running  out"  of 193 

saving  seed 193 

scab    200 

sets  or  "seeds" 193 

soil    192 

starch    198 

use  for  seed  of  scabby 201 

varieties 198 

Protection    to    newly    planted 
seeds   against   insects....   46 
against   crows  and  gophers.  46 

Pumokins » 215 

Pyrethrum 85 

Radishes 161 

culture 161 

varieties 162 

Rhubarb 135 

culture    *....'.  £  £5^ 

forcing 13(5* 

varieties  ........... .»  ...  .137 

Ridging  land .33 

Rotating   of  manures 28 

Rotation  of  crops    13 

reasons  for 13 

Rue 233 

Rue  Family   106-233 

Rutaceae    233 

Rutabagas   . . . 157 

Sage 231 

Sauer  kraut 152 

Savory,  winter 232 

Shallots 133 

Seed 55 


Seeds — Cont'fl.  Page 

curing 57 

germinating  apparatus   ....   56 
germinating  standards   ....237 

stock    58 

storing    57 

testing 55 

Seed  sowing   42 

depth    42 

time    43 

firming  by  feet 45 

in  stiff  soils 43 

with  machine   44 

by  hand 45 

Seedmen's  humbugs 58 

Seedmen's  specialties 68 

Seed  tables 234-237 

amount  for  acre 236 

longevity   235 

purity  standards 237 

number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce.234 

time  to  germinate 236 

weight  of  seeds 234 

Seeds,  pedigrees  of 55 

novelties 58 

Solanaceae 190 

Soils 8 

for  early  crops 8 

for  late  crops 8 

elements  necessary    14 

elements   lacking   in 14 

Spearmint 232 

Spinach , 141 

•     culture 142 

varieties    143 

Squash 211 

cultivation 212 

harvesting 213 

pollenizing  flowers 211 

storing 213 

varieties 214 

Sunflower  Family 105-243 

Strawberry  tomato 208 

culture 209 

Sub-irrigation 12 

Subsoiling 31 

Summer  savory 232 

Sweet  basil   231 

Sweet    marjoram 232 


INDEX. 


249 


Page 

Sweet  Potato    189 

Swiss    chard    141 

Thinning   plants    46 

Thyme    232 

Tillage,    garden    29 

general     33 

Tomato,    prolonging   season.. 207 

Tomato 204 

cultivation    204 

diseases    207 

insects    207 

in  severe  locations 206 

land  for   204 

propagation    204 

pruning    205 

207 


saving  seed 


205 

205 

207 

86 

Transplanting   47 

avoiding  47 

conditions  of  success 47 


training    

transplanting 
varieties 
Tobacco   


Transplanting— Cont'd.  Page 

shortening  the  tops  in 48 

digging   plants   for 48 

firming  the  soil   in 49 

with  tomato  cans 51 

Turnip    *57 

culture    I58 

rutabaga    159 

varieties     159 

Umbellifereae    171-232 

Varieties,    development    of...   58 

mixing  of    63 

distance   between    63 

Vegetable     oyster     (see    sal- 
sify)    226 

Vitality    of    seeds 235 

Vegetables,    composition    of..  15 
Warm  Climate  Vegetables. .  .104 

Weeds    30 

cultivation  to  kill 29 

killing  of   29 

prevention  of 29 

seeds  in  manure 30 

Winter  Savory 232 

Weights  of  seeds 234 


A  C.  State  Coll*** 


Standard  Books  for  Farmers. 

WE  CAN  SUPPLY  ANY  BOOK  PUBLISHED  ON 


FARMING,  GARDENING,  THE  ORCHARD,  DAIRY,  EIVE 
STOCK,  HORTICULTURE,  FORESTRY,  POULTRY,BEES, 

ETC.    All  Inquiries  and  Orders  for  Farm  Books  will  Receive   Prompt  Attention. 


Vegetable  Gardening  ^.B: 

sor  of  Horticulture,  University  of  Minneso- 
ta. A  manual  on  the  growing  of  vegetables 
for  home  use  and  marketing.  122  illustra- 
tions. Sixth  edition.  Indispensable  to  farm- 
ers and  gardeners  everywhere. 

Cloth  Bound,  $1.00;  Paper  Covers,  50c. 

Poultry  Manual 

A  standard  guide  to  suc- 
cessful poultry  keeping,  by  F.  L.  Sewell 
and  Ida  E.  Tilson,  both  well-known  au- 
thorities on  domestic  fowls  and  their  keep- 
ing. Beautifully  illustrated  and  in  every 
way  a  practical  book  for  all  interested  in 
the  raising  of  poultry. 

Cloth  Bound,  50c;  Paper  Covers,  25c, 

The  Country  Kitchen  LlteLii 

recipes,  all  contributed  by  farmers'  wives 
and  daughters,  readers  of  The  Farmer. 
Tnis  is  a  choice  collection  carefully  se- 
lected from  hundreds  of  good  recipes  which 
we  received.  It  has  gone  through  many 
editions  and  is  today  the  most  popular 
book  of  its  class  published. 

Cloth  Bound,  50c;  Paper  Covers,  25c 

MAKE  ALL  REMITTANCES  BY   POST  OFFICE   OR    EXPRESS    ORDERS  OR 
NEW  YORK,   CHICAGO  OR  ST.  PAUL  DRAFTS. 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  00.,££fifi: 


MORE    THAN 


10,000  FARMS  FREE 


The  Lano  And  The  Law 

Vakcaxvt 
Government 

Located  by  QourAtes. 

A  BILLION  ACPES 

...OPEN  TO  . 

homestead  entry 
And  Purchase. 

HOW  TO  CETIT. 

"S   PBICE    2S  CENTS 

N 

Free   Homesteads 

Free  Timber  Lands 

Free    Grazing     La^nds 

Free    Mineral    Lands 

Free  Stone  and  Coal  Lands 

This  book  locates  each  claim  by 
Counties  and  gives  fullest  information 
about  free  government  lands  and  how 
to  secure  them. 

ONLY  25  CENTS. 

A  billion  acres  open  to  free  entry. 

Vacant  Government  Land 

Is  a  comparatively  new  book,  of  which  25,000  copies 
have  been  sold.  It  has  been  revised  to  date  and  gives 
full  information  to  land-seekers  about  United  States  Vacant 
Lands  and  how  to  secure  them.  The  number  of  acres  and 
the  kind  of  land  that  is  open  to  settlement  in  each  county 
of  every  public  land  State  and  Territory.  The  location  of 
each  land  office  to  which  applications  are  to  be  made,  with 
blank  form  of  application.  It  tells  how  U.  S.  lands  are 
surveyed  by  section,  township  and  range.  About  irriga- 
tion and  irrigated  lands;  oil  and  saline  lands,  and  how  to 
acquire  townsites  and  millsites. 
Many  Diagrams  and  Tables  Revised  Up  to  Date. 

Vacant  Government  Land 

will  be  mailed  postpaid  to  any  address 

FOR    25     CENTS. 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO.,  47-51  E.  Fourth  St.,  ST,  PAUL,  MINN. 


lit  ATI  TUItt. 


Prof.  Thomas  Shaw's  Books. 

EDITOR  OF  THE  FARMER, 

and  late  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at  the  University  of  Minnesota. 
NO  WRITER  ON  FARM  TOPICS  HAS  WON  A  MORE  GENERAL 
RECOGNITION  DURING  RECENT  YEARS  THAN    PROF.   SHAW. 

Science  and  practice  are  combined  with  such  thoroughness  and  accu- 
racy in  detail, that  whatever  he  writes  is  valuable  to  ever^v  person  engaged 
in  agriculture.     His  books  are  carefully  indexed  and  nicely  illustrated. 

WEEDS  AND  HOW  TO  ERADICATE  THEM. 

In  this  book  the  principles  that  govern  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds  are  given  with  a  comprehensiveness  and 
accuracy  never  attempted  previously  by  any  other 
writer.  The  habits  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  are 
discussed  along  with  the  best  methods  of  destroying 
them.    208  pages. 

Price,  Cloth  Bound,  50c;  Paper  Covers,  25c 

FEEDIHG  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  LIVE 

CTflCIf  "^n  important  book  on  a  subject  to 
wlWVn  which  too  little  attention  is  given  by 
tbe  average  farmer.  The  book  takes  up  the  prep- 
aration and  feeding  of  food  and  the  best  methods 
of  housing  live  stock.  Also  the  rearing  and  care 
of  calves;  selection  and  care  of  male  and  female 
for  beef  breeds;  rearing  and  care  of  sheep  for  wool 
and  mutton;  washing  and  shearing  of  sheep;  feed- 
ing and  care  of  young  pigs;  selecting  and  care  of 
brood  sows  and  boars,  and  other  subjects  of  im- 
portance on  the  care  and  management  of  live  stock. 

Price,  Cloth  Bound,  $1.00;    Paper  Covers,  50c 

THE  STUDY  OF  BREEDS  ^s^t 

pedigreed  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in 
America.  It  is  concise  yet  very  comprehensive,  and  is  thoroughly  illus- 
trated. Careful  reading  of  this  book  will  tend  to  raise  the  standard  of 
breeds  on  your  farm.    37L  pages.     Cloth  Bound,  $1.50. 

ANIMAI  RRFFniNfi  This  is  the  only  book  given  to  the  world  which 
HillmHL  DnkkUlllU  discusses  the  subject  of  breeding  in  an  orderly, 
methodical  and  comprehensive  manner.  It  is  the  only  book  ever  written 
which  has  brought  this  subject  within  the  easy  grasp  of  the  average 
mind.  It  contains  thirtv  chapters,  covering  ever}-  important  phase  of  the 
subject.     406  pages.     Illustrated.     RrJCC,  Cloth  Bound,  $1.50. 

SOILING  mnjMSSUM^SfrSSgiS&tS 

soiling  uses.     It  also  tells  how  to  grow  and  feed  them.     It  discusses  crops 
suitable  for  the  silo,  and  tells  how  to  grow  and  harvest  them.      The  vari- 
ous kinds  of  silos,  and  how  to  build  them.     How  to  fill  them  and   how  to 
feed  the  ensilage.     336  pages.     Price,  Cloth  Bound,  $1.00. 
A         ANY  OF  ABOVE  BOOKS  MAILED  POSTPAID  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 

IWEB3  PUBLISHING  CO.,  47-51  E.  Fourth  St.,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 


THE 

Feeding  si  Management 
of  Livestock. 

BY 
TH0S5HAW.  ^ 

SECOND  EDITION 

Prof.  Thomas  Shaw's  Books. 

(CONTINUED.) 

GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  latest  and  most  complete  work  of  its  kind  pub- 
lished. Discussing  tbe  growing  and  economic  value 
of  all  the  grasses  found  at  present  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  from  the  standpoint  of  the  needs 
of  the  stockman  and  farmer.  A  complete  study  of 
the  characteristics  of  each  kind  of  grass;  prepara- 
tion of  land  for  seeding  and  sowing;  pasturing;  and 
harvesting  for  hay  and  seed.  460  pages.  Illustrated. 

Price,  Cloth  Bound,  $1.50. 

FORAGE  CROPS-Other  Than  Grasses. 

How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use  them.  In 
this  book  all  the  crops  suitable  for  forage  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  described.  It  discusses  the  subject 
from  all  standpoints  and  is  written  in  a  manner  that  makes  the  book 
adaptable  to  the  needs  of  the  farmer,  the  stockman,  and  the  agricultural 
student.     281  pages.     Heavily  illustrated.     Price,  Cloth  Bound,  $1.00. 


I,. 

--^-^^W-rfe-^ 

^ZbemasSAaat. 

30  DAIRY  RATIONS 


The  farmer's 
handv  m  a  n  - 
ual,  by  H.  C. 
Carpenter.  Treating  on  the  feeding  and  care  of 
Dairy  Cows,  including  the  development  and  raising 
of  Dairy  Calves.  Th'S  little  book  gives  a  concise 
treatise  on  the  most  successful  methods  pursued  by 
the  experts  of  the  country  in  the  Dairy  Industry. 
Proper  feeding  and  care  with  the  cows  will  more 
than  repay  for  the  labor  spent. 

Size  5%x1lA— Illustrated. 

Price,  Paper  Covers,  25  Cents. 


30  rations 


FEEOINGANDCAPF 

Dairy  Cows. 


HANDBOOK 


DQMINIONOF  CANADA; 


THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA 

By  Moses  Folsom.  A  handbook  for  American  readers, 
containing  a  comprehensive  review  of  the  Historv, 
Physical  Features,  Population,  Climate,  Forms  of 
Government,  Resources,  Tariff,  Exports,  Imports, 
Agriculture,  Land  Survey,  and  Registry  Systems, 
Naturalization,  The  Franchise,  and  many  other  mat- 
ters concerning  Our  Great  Northern  Neighbor,  includ- 
ing Homesteading  Eelations  and  Provincial  Laws  for 
acquiring  Agriculture,  Timber  and  Mineral  Lands,  etc. 
An  invalnable  handbook  to  any  one  thinking  of  locat- 
ing in  The  Dominion  or  to  any  one  interested  in  Cana- 
da and  her  relations  to  the  United  States.     100  pages.  Paper  covers,  25c. 

ANY  OF  ABOVE  BOOKS  MAILED    POSTPAID  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO.,  47-51  E.  Fourth  St.,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 


SPECIAL    LIST   OF 

RURAL  BOOKS 


SUPPLIED    BY 


Webb  Publishing  Co., 

47-51  East  4th  St.,     ==     ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 


PRIZE    GARDENING. 


Compiled  by  G.  Burnap  Fiske.  This  unique  book  shows  how  to 
derive  profit,  pleasure  and  health  from  the  garden,  by  giving  the 
actual  experiences  of  the  successful  prize  winners  in  the  American 
Agriculturist  garden  contest.  Every  line  is  from  actual  experience 
based  on  real  work.  The  result  is  a  mine  and  treasure  house  of  gar- 
den practice,  comprising  the  grand  prize  gardener's  methods,  garden- 
ing for  profit,  farm  gardens,  the  home  acre,  town  and  city  gardens, 
experimental  gardening,  methods  under  glass,  success  with  special- 
ties, prize  flowers  and  fruits,  gardening  by  women,  boys  and  girls,  irri- 
gation, secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  from  original  photographs.  320 
pages.      5x7    inches.      Cloth $1.00 

BARN    PLANS   AND   OUTBUILDINGS. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  illustrations.  A  most  valuable  work, 
full  of  ideas,  hints,  suggestions,  plans,  etc.,  for  the  construction  of 
barns  and  outbuildings,  by  practical  writers.  Chapters  are  devoted  to 
the  economic  erection  and  use  of  barns,  grain  barns,  horse  barns,  cat- 
tle barns,  sheep  barns,  corn  houses,  smoke  houses,  ice  houses,  pig 
pens,  granaries,  etc.  There  are  likewise,  chapters  upon  bird  houses, 
dog  houses,  tool  sheds,  ventilators,  roofs  and  roofing,  doors  and  fas- 
tenings, workshops,  poultry  houses,  manure  sheds,  barnyards,  root 
pits,  etc.     235  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

FARM    DRAINAGE. 

By  Judge  French  of  New  Hampshire.  The  principles,  process  and 
effects  of  draining  land  with  stones,  wood,  ditch-plows,  open  ditches, 
and  especially  with  tiles;  including  tables  of  rainfall,  evaporation,  fil- 
tration, excavation,  capacity  of  pipes,  cost  and  number  to  the  acre. 
384  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

AMERICAN    CATTLE    DOCTOR. 

By  George  H.  Dadd,  V.  S'.,  veterinary  practitioner.  To  help  every 
man  to  be  his  own  cattle  doctor,  giving  the  necessary  information  for 
preserving  the  health  and  curing  the  diseases  of  oxen,  cows,  sheep  and 
swine,  with  a  great  variety  of  original  recipes  and  valuable  informa- 
tion of  farm  and  dairy  management.  359  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth     $1.00 

Any    of    Above    Books    Mailed    Postpaid    on    Receipt   of    Price. 


DADD'S  MODERN  HORSE  DOCTOR. 
By  George  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.,  V.  S.  Containing  practical  observa- 
tions on  the  causes,  nature  and  treatment  of  diseases  and  lameness  of 
horses— embracing  recent  and  improved  methods,  according  to  an  en- 
lightened system  of  veterinary  practice,  for  preservation  and  restora- 
tion of  health.     Illustrated.     432  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

HOWDEN'S  THE   HORSE:      HOW  TO    BUY  AND  SELL. 

By  Peter  Howden.  Giving  the  points  which  distinguish  a  sound 
from  an  unsound  horse.  This  volume  abounds  in  general  information 
stated  in  so  clear  and  simple  a  manner  as  to  enable  anvone  to  intel- 
ligently buy  and  sell  a  horse.  It  explains  the  meaning  of  horse  war- 
ranty, and  its  use,  and  shows  the  value  of  knowledge  on  this  subject 
131    pages.      5x7    inches.      Cloth , |1-00' 

DISEASES  OF  SWINE. 

By  D.  Mcintosh,  V.  S.  A  text-book  for  swine  growers,  veterinarv 
surgeons  and  students.  This  is  the  first  work  exclusively  devoted  to 
the  subject  published  in  America.  The  subjects  dealt  with  are  based 
on  science  and  confirmed  by  experience,  so  that  the  reader  will  not 
have  to  lose  time  in  reading  theories  which  are  not  confirmed  by 
facts.     Illustrated.     230  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $2.00 

TURKEYS  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 
•  Edited  by  Herbert  Myriok.  A  treatise  on  the  natural  history  and 
origin  of  the  name  of  turkeys;  the  various  breeds,  the  best  methods 
to  insure  success  in  the  business  of  turkey  growing.  With  essays 
from  practical  turkey  growers  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.     Illustrated.     154   pages.     5x7   inches.     Cloth $1.00 

DUCK   CULTURE. 

0.By  James   Rankin.      Natural   and  artificial.     Fully   illustrated.     103 
pages.      .Paper an  or 

QUINBY'S    NEW    BEE    KEEPING. 

in„  SL^C-^00*-  The  mysteries  of  bee  keeping  explained.  Combin- 
wJSLT esult  °f  50  y^ars    experience  with   the  latest  discoveries  and 

i Sit?  worlan?n?,SS !!?* \ng  £?  m°St  ;aPProved  methods,  forming  a  com- 
plete  woik.     Illustrated.      271   pages.      5x7   inches.      Cloth ....$1.00 

ALFALFA. 

«,„+Eyi,F,VD:i.C.oburi?-  Its  Srowth>  uses  and  feeding  value.  -The  fact 
that  a  falfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without  reseeding  it  roS 
on  yielding  two  three,  four  and  sometimes  five  cuttings  annually  fo? 
o7ethlen^n«tPer^  10° /ears;  and  that  either  green  or&cu?ed  t  ?  one 
of  the  most  nutritious  forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  informa- 
tion upon  its  production  and  uses  of  unusual  interest  Such  nforma- 
tion  is  given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America  by  the  hiSSt 
authority.     Illustrated.     164  pages.     5x7   inches.     Cloth.    ._      .    .  ?$0  fo 

BROOM    CORN   AND   BROOMS. 
A  treatise  on  raising  broom   corn  and   making  brooms   on   a  small 
or  large  scale.     Illustrated.     59   pages.     5x7   inches.      Cloth. ....   |o. 50 

THE   A    B    C    OF    POTATO    CULTURE. 

ar,ri  BL  TC"   B«  Tefry-     ,How  to  §row  Potatoes   in  the  largest  quantities 

fabor      PaPei.ne    ..QU.al.itieS-    with    th<?   leaSt   exPendi^rf  of  lime    and 
$0.45 

Any  of  Above   Books   Mailed   Postpaid   on   Receipt  of   Price. 


ASPARAGUS. 

By  F.  M.  Hexamer.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in  America 
which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  asparagus  for  home 
use  as  well  as  for  market.  It  is  a  practical  and  reliable  treatise  on 
the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the  plants,  selection  and  preparation 
of  the  soil,  planting,  cultivation,  manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  pack- 
ing, marketing,  canning  and  drying,  insect  enemies,  fungus  diseases 
and  every  requirement  to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  em- 
phasis being  given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and 
money  crop.     Illustrated.     174  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

CABBAGE,   CAULIFLOWER 

And  Allied  Vegetables,  from  Seed  to  Harvest.  By  C.  L.  Allen.  A 
practical  treatise  on  the  various  types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts,  kale,  collards  and  kohl-rabi.  It  first 
treats  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  and  general  manage- 
ment pertaining  to  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this  each  class  is 
taken  up  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter  on  seed  raising  is 
probably  the  most  authoritative  treatise  on  this  subject  ever  pub- 
lished. Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this  class  of  vegetables  are  given 
due  attention.     Illustrated.     126  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

FLAX   CULTURE. 

A  very  valuable  work,  containing  full  directions  from  selection  of 
ground  and  seed  to  preparation  and  marketing  of  crop,  as  given  by  a 
number  of  experienced  growers.     6x9  inches.     Paper $0.30 

GINSENG. 

Its  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Marketing,  and  Market  Value.  By 
Maurice  G.  Kains.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seed  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation,  planting 
and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation,  manures,  ertemies, 
selection  for  market  and  for  improvement,  preparation  for  sale,  and 
the  profits  that  may  be  expected.  New  edition.  Revised  and  enlarged. 
Profusely   illustrated.     5x7    inches.      Cloth $0.50 

THE    PRACTICAL    FRUIT    GROWER. 

By  'S.  T.  Maynard.  Just  what  the  beginner  needs  and  the  success- 
ful fruit  man  practices.  Illustrated.  128  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth     $0.50 

FIELD    NOTES    ON    APPLE    CULTURE. 
By  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey,  Jr.     A  most  useful  and  thoroughly  practical 
book  for  orchardists.     Illustrated.     90  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.. $0.75 

CIDER  MAKER'S  HANDBOOK. 
By  J.  M.  Trowbridge.  Contents:  The  properties  of  cider  apple 
juice;  apples,  varieties  and  tests;  apparatus  for  making  cider;  strain- 
ing and  filtering;  fermentation;  pasteurization;  old  method  of  cider 
making.  It  is  a  complete  guide  for  the  cider  maker  on  a  large  or 
small   scale.     Illustrated.     119  pages.     5x7   inches.     Cloth $1.00 

STRAWBERRY  CULTURIST. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Containing  all  information  necessary  to  en- 
able everybody  to  raise  their  own  strawberries.  Fully  illustrated.  5x7 
inches.      Flexible    cloth $0.25 

WHEAT   CULTURE. 

By  D.   S'.  Curtis.     How  to  double  the  yield  and  increase  the  profits. 

Importance   of   the   wheat   crop.      Varieties   most   grown    in   the   United 

States.      Examples      of     successful      wheat     culture.      Illustrated.      5x7 

inches.     Paper $0.50 

Any    of    Above    Books    Mailed    Postpaid    on    Receipt   of    Price. 


